heating to the ignition point of the oil and then world. More particularly, Shakespeare was quenching is repeated until it has been per- indebted to the story of a feet of ships that formed three times, after which the piece is said had set out from England in 1609, was wrecked to be "oil tempered, and is ready for use. in the Bermudas a few weeks after and

In the early days of steel-working in the finally reached the newly-established colony in United States, it was common to import water Virginia. While, as has been suggested, he in casks from Sheffield, England, for hardening might have heard from returning seamen and tempering purposes, as it was believed that stories of this wreck and of the strange hapthere is some special virtue in the water that penings in the New World, he was especially had been used for so long, and with such indebted to Silvester Jourdan's The Diseminent success, in that city. There was prob- covery of the Bermudas, published in 1610. ably little or no foundation for this belief, and Professor Alden has recently made good his yet it is known that substances that may be in contention that the real source for the desolution in the water that is used for quenching scription of the storm and for the incidents often have an important influence upon the that take place upon the strange island is product. Many artisans dissolve salt or cyanide found in a letter written by William Strachey, of potassium in the water that they use for this dated 15 July 1610, and which, though not pubpurpose, and there is considerable ground for lished until 1625, was, from contemporary evithe belief that such dissolved substances do

dence, seen by Shakespeare. The parallelisms exert an influence upon the character of the

between the play and the letter are most strikproduct, which is out of all apparent proportion ing and certainly tend to show that the author's to the strength of the solutions containing them. indebtedness to contemporary sources was far In particular, it may be noted that there is a

greater than has been generally supposed. The deeply-rooted belief among blacksmiths and ideal commonwealth suggested by Gonzalo, other artisans who work with metals that a while based upon

Florio's translation of piece of steel cannot be hardened by heating it Montaigne's essays, a new edition of which and then quenching it in water that contains was published in 1610, bears a striking resoap, even in small amounts.

semblance to conditions in the Virginia colony The art of tempering cannot be adequately as portrayed in the letter. presented in a short article, and those who are However far one may go in the acceptance skilled at it maintain (probably quite justifiably) of these parallels, the play is none the less the that the only way to learn it is by actual ex- creation of Shakespeare's genius. While it is perience in the shop. Different steels may lacking in the perfect technique of some of his require radically different treatment, and

plays, and especially in the closeness of draspecial implements (razors, for example) may matic structure, it is a great poem and it lends call for years of study before they can be tem- itself to allegorical interpretation as do few pered satisfactorily.

of the plays. Caliban is a monumental repreALLAN D. RISTEEN.

sentation of a primitive type of humanity, reTEMPEST, The. Although certain inter- joicing in unrestricted freedom and in the nal evidence, notably the verse-test, has caused

saturnalia of license. Ariel, more than Puck, most scholars to believe that "The Winter's represents the spiritual forces of nature under Tale' was the last of Shakespeare's plays,

the domination of superior wisdom and for there will always be reason in thinking that

the service of man.

Prospero, both in his “The Tempest (written in 1610 or 1611) best

magical art and in his intellectual and spiritual represents the final mood of Shakespeare as greatness, is an anticipation of the triumphant he turned from the writing of his plays to

victory of man at his best over all the forces the last years of his life in Stratford. It is

of the world. There is no greater utterance certainly one of the group of romantic of Shakespeare than the words in which comedies which Shakespeare wrote after the Prospero, looking out from the serene heights completion of his tragedies; and in the char- which he has reached, expresses the ultimate acter of Prospero we are warranted in seeing

truth about man and the universe: an adumbration of Shakespeare's personality as

"We are such stuff he looked out upon the world from the heights

As dreams are made on, and our little life

Is rounded with a sleep." of his later years. He, like Prospero, broke

EDWIN MIMS. his wand and buried his book deeper than did ever plummet sound. After all, while life may TEMPLAR, Knights. See MASONIC FRAbe tragical as presented in the series of plays TERNITY, THE from Hamlet' to "Timon of Athens, it is TEMPLE, Frederick,

Frederick, English prelate, also full of sunshine and humor and the for- archbishop of Canterbury: b. Santa Maura, giveness of enemies and the reconciliation of Ionian Islands, 30 Nov. 1821 ; d. London, 23 the forces of good and evil. "The Tempest) Dec. 1902. He was the son of an English army is such a representation of life. While some of officer who died while he was a child, and the scenes of the play suggest definitely Milan under his mother's care was well educated in and Naples, Tunis and the intervening Medi- youth, so that he obtained a double first at terranean Sea, the enchanted island upon Oxford and was elected Fellow and tutor of which Prospero lived is on none other than his college. After his ordination in 1846 he the uncharted deep that voyagers were bring- took charge of Kneller Hall, Twickenham, and ing within the compass of man's imagina- from 1848 to 1858 was school inspector. In the tion. In the grotesque figure of Caliban, the latter year he was made headmaster of Rugby magic of Prospero and the spirit-like world and became one of the most powerful and inof Ariel, there is the atmosphere of the fluential successors of Arnold. The publicastrange world that stood out in definite con- tion of Essays and Reviews, in which series trast with the fixed limits of the European Temple led off with The Education of the

TEMPLE - TEMPLE UNIVERSITY

i

TEMPO - TEMPORAL POWER

409

but is of a strongly religious atmosphere, and Italy and elsewhere long before any form of accomplishes a notable work in assisting those political papal sovereignty had been thought of. who could not otherwise obtain high educa- Meanwhile, through the favorable legislation tional advantages. In 1922–23 there were 408 of the Christian emperors, the political role of instructors and 8,042 students. The value of the popes and of bishops in general, was assumthe University's property was given as $760,684. ing an ever-growing importance. The bishop of TEMPO (time), in music, the relative rate

a city was not only the official protector of the of movement or degree of quickness with which

poor, of prisoners and of slaves; he had also in a piece of music is to be executed. The de

virtue of his office a voice concerning various grees of time are indicated by certain words

points of civic administration. Even in prosuch as lento (slow), adagio or largo (leisurely)

vincial affairs he enjoyed important rights and andante (walking pace), allegro (gay or quick), privileges. Thus, among other things, we find presto (rapid), prestissimo (very rapid), etc.

that appeal could be made from the decision of A tempo is the proper time. (See Music).

an imperial magistrate to the tribunal of the The word is also used in chess to indicate the

bishop. Such being the political status of bishperiod of a move, especially when the move is

ops generally, it is easy to understand that the wasted.

powers granted to and exercised by the Roman

pontiffs were still more extensive. To them, in TEMPORAL BONE See ANATOMY; particular, recourse was had against the exacSKULL.

tions of the rapacious Byzantine governors who TEMPORAL POWER (OF THE POPE). ruled in the different Italian provinces, and in By this expression, in its generally received sig- this connection, as well as in other ways, the nification, is understood the sovereign civil rule vigilant protection of the popes proved benewhich was exercised by the popes over the ficial to the people. It must be remembered states of the Church with varying vicissitudes that during this period the civil and political from the middle of the 8th century down to the situation throughout the peninsula was in a conyear 1870, when the last remnant of the papal dition bordering on the chaotic. The chronic states was annexed to the United Kingdom of state of unrest and insecurity which resulted Italy.

from the incursions of the barbarians and the The formal establishment of the temporal deplorable inefficiency of the imperial adminispower dates from the year 754, when Pepin, tration, made the interference of the popes in king of the Franks, bestowed upon Pope civil matters a real practical necessity. Theirs Stephen II (who had sought his aid against the was the only authority that commanded genoppression of the Lombards) independent sov- eral respect, and the common weal demanded ereignty over some 20 cities, thus constituting that they should look after the material as well what was henceforth known as the state or as the spiritual interests of their flock. That patrimony of Saint Peter. Though apparently such was the true condition of affairs is amply a new departure - one possibly unlooked for on shown forth in the papal correspondence of the the part of the Pope himself — this addition of time, especially in the letters of Gregory the a temporal to the spiritual rule of the bishop Great (590-604). It is also worth noting that of Rome was in reality but the natural outcome though they had ever-growing reasons to be of pre-existing civil and political conditions.

dissatisfied with Byzantine rule, the popes (even Among these may be mentioned the fact that those who succeeded Gregory) continued to the Roman Church was already in possession remain faithful to the idea of a world-wide of numerous and extensive landed estates or Christian empire, and exercised their influence patrimonies situated for the most part within to maintain in Italy its authority and prestige. ihe bounds of the Italian peninsula, and which

But, as is well known, many of the emperors were controlled or administered by the popes

of that period were more preoccupied with through their agents.

theology than with matters pertaining to civil This state of things had gradually developed administration, and their repeated attempts to from very early beginnings, for we find that impose upon the bishops of the West subtle even during the period of the persecutions, the formulas of orthodoxy led to frequent conflicts, local church of Rome (whether organized le- in some of which popes were violently dragged gally as a burial society, or simply as a body away to prison or death. Thus Silverius and corporate, holding property under the general Vigilius, Pelagius and Martin became the laws of the empire) possessed not only the victims of imperial tyranny. On the refusal of great cemeteries now known as the Catacombs, Sergius I to accept the decrees of the Emperor but also other property, as is clear from the Justinian II the latter commanded the protoedict of Milan. By a law of 321, the Emperor spatharius Zachary to arrest the Pope and bring Constantine granted to all persons capable of him a prisoner to Constantinople, but the pubmaking a will the right to bequeath property to lic spirit in Italy was already in revolt against the Church, and he himself gave an example this arrogant, high-handed policy, and the army of generosity in this respect by endowing munif- interfered to prevent the execution of the imicently the various basilicas of Rome. Similar perial mandate. Again, in 727, Leo the Isaurian bequests in one form or another were made by sent his edict against the use of images to Pope wealthy Christians throughout the empire, one Gregory II with orders for his deposition in of the principal uses to which the property thus case he should refuse to comply. Gregory reacquired was applied being to relieve the dis- sponded by denouncing the edict and excomtress occasioned by the depredations of the bar- municating the exarch; again the soldiers arose barians who began to overrun Italy from the in his defense, and the efforts of the imperial beginning of the 5th century. In this way the officers to carry out their instructions cost them Roman Church had become very wealthy, and their lives. In 733 the emperor confiscated all the popes, were already great landed proprie- the Church's estates in Sicily, Bruttium, Lutors, owning vast estates in various parts of cania, Calabria and Naples; others were con

fiscated by the Lombards, and no security re- casional minor disturbances occurred between mained even for the inhabitants of Rome. The these events and 1848, when Pius IX, on account empire was unable to defend its subjects — of an insurrection, was obliged to flee to Gaeta worse than that, it even oppressed and plundered and Rome was declared a republic. The Pope them. The only refuge left to the Romans and was again restored to power through the armed their spiritual as well as actually temporal intervention of France, Austria, Spain and Nahead was to seek the aid of the friendly king ples, and the Austrians occupied the northern of the Franks. It is not clear whether Pope legations or Romagna on his behalf until 1859, Stephen II in taking this step had already in when their army was withdrawn. Soon after view the establishment of a civil principality the province repudiated its allegiance to the under his own rule or not, but be that as it Pope and its annexation to Sardinia was promay, just then the relations between the papacy claimed. The French still continued to hold and the emperor were further strained by the Rome in subjection to papal authority and Pius publication of a fresh edict against the use of IX, with a view to withstand any further enimages emanating from a synod of Constanti- croachments upon his dominions, raised an nople. A continuation of the old régime seemed army, which was placed under the leadership of no longer possible, the army of Pepin arrived in the able French general, Lamoricière. In the Italy in the summer of 754, and the independent meantime Garibaldi and his followers, whose state of Saint Peter was established, with the aim was the political unification of the Italian Pope as its civil ruler, in the same year. In states under the rule of Victor Emmanuel, were view of the circumstances, it may be truly said conducting a successful campaign in Sicily and that this distinction was bestowed upon the Naples. The news of this caused an outbreak bishop of Rome in recognition of a twofold in Urbino and the Marches in favor of Victor prerogative, namely, his prestige as head of the Emmanuel. The Sardinian troops came to the Church and defender of orthodoxy against aid of the insurgents and after two encounters Eastern aggression, and his character of na- with the troops under Lamoricière compelled tional benefactor.

the latter to surrender with his whole army The papal dominion as constituted by the after a week's siege in Ancona (1860). The grant of Pepin comprised the cities of Ravenna, revolted provinces of Umbria, Urbino and the Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Casena, Forli Comma- Marches, as well as the isolated provinces of chio and 15 other towns. In 1053 the duchy Benevento and Pontecorvo, situated within the of Benevento was annexed, and between that kingdom of Naples, were immediately annexed period and the end of the 13th century the au- to Sardinia. Finally, on 20 Dec. 1870, the thority of the Roman See was acknowledged by French troops having been withdrawn on acmany other free towns in Italy. In 1278 the count of the war with Prussia, Rome was enEmperor Rudolf I confirmed the acquisitions tered practically without resistance by the made thus far, defined the boundaries of the troops of Victor Emmanuel, and the last vestige papal states, and recognized the Pope's exclu- of temporal power disappeared. Victor Emsive authority over them by absolving the in- manuel having been proclaimed king over habitants from their oath of allegiance to the united Italy, took up his residence in the papal empire. The papal dominion then included Pe- palace of the Quirinal and Pius IX withdrew rugia, Bologna, Bertinoro, the duchy of Spoleto, to a life of seclusion (in the Vatican), considerthe exarchy of Ravenna and the marche of An- ing himself as a prisoner unable to leave his cona, but many of the towns were more or less retreat without compromising his dignity as independent. The Romagna was annexed at head of the Church, or even giving occasion to the end of the 15th century. Under Alexander riots and bloodshed. He never ceased to proVI and Julius II were added Faenza, Parma, test emphatically against the spoliation of his Placentia and Reggio, and the papal states re- rights as a temporal ruler and against the presceived their final additions in the 17th century, ence of the king and his court in the papal city. namely, Urbino, Ronciglione and the duchy of Leo XIII, though departing in many respects Castro. In 1797 the Romagna was seized by from the policy of his predecessor, maintained Napoleon and incorporated into the Cisalpine nevertheless throughout the same uncompromisRepublic. The following year Rome itself was ing attitude toward the question of the temtaken by the French and the papal states were poral power, and the same policy was steaderected into the Roman Republic. Pius VII fastly affirmed by his successor, Pius X. Such regained possession of his states in 1800, but are, in briefest outline, the main facts pertain they were soon retaken by the French, and ing to the origin and history of this ecclesias. finally (1809) incorporated with France, Rome tico-civil institution. It is beyond the scope being reckoned the second city of the empire. of the present article to appreciate or criticize After the downfall of Napoleon (1814) Pius the motives either of those who labored to VII returned to Rome and was formally rein- maintain it or of those who more or less stated in his office of temporal ruler by the directly sought its abolition. Still less pertreaty of Vienna, mainly through the friendly tinent to the purpose in view would be a specusupport of the non-Catholic powers Russia, lation on the probable restoration of the same Prussia and England. In 1830 a rebellion broke in the future. It must be granted that, conout in Ancona and Bologna, the reason alleged sidering the present political situation in by the insurgents being that the clerical rule in Europe, the probability of a restoration of the the provinces contrasted too unfavorably with temporal power, at least in its ancient form, the preceding French administration. This re- seems rather remote. For all practical intents volt was quelled through the aid of Austria, and purposes the different powers recognize as but another uprising occurred soon after, and a fait accompli the incorporation of the papal the Austrians took occasion thereby to occupy dominions into the kingdom of Italy; though, the northern legations, while at the same time on the other hand, it still remains true that this the French placed a garrison in Ancona. Oc- state of affairs has never yet received any for