The

World,' roused a storm of acrimonious controversy, but did not shake confidence in the headmaster of Rugby, who was appointed bishop of Exeter in 1869, was translated to London in 1885 and succeeded Archbishop Benson in 1896. Equally as schoolmaster and as bishop he was a strict disciplinarian, an untiring worker, a blunt, just and sincere man whose plainness of address did not obscure the massive learning with which his mind was stored. The great controversial storms of the century had spent their fury in the English Church before he reached the primacy, but his incumbency was not uneventful. Tractarian movement was in its last phase of ritualism, and Temple handled ritualists with firmness and moderation. He took part in the queen's diamond jubilee (1897) and in 1902 placed the crown on the head of her successor. His writings are 'Sermons in Rugby Chapel' and Bampton Lectures for 1884 on The Relations between Religion and Science,' of which it may be said that they were up to the standard set by previous lecturers and were not unworthy of the future primate of All England. He died in harness, never recovering from the effort he made in a strong appeal in the House of Lords uttered in favor of the public education bill.

TEMPLE, Oliver Perry, American lawyer and author: b. Green County, Tenn., 27 Jan. 1820. He was graduated from Washington College, Tenn., in 1844, and admitted to the bar in 1846. He was a Union leader in East Tennessee during the Civil War; was a chancellor of Tennessee, 1866-78, and retired from the bar in 1881. His publications include (The Covenanter, The Cvalier and the Puritan' (1897); Union Leaders of East Tennessee' (1903), etc.

TEMPLE, Richard Carnac, English civil servant and antiquary: b. Allahabad, India, 15 Oct. 1850. He was educated at Cambridge University. He served in the Burma War 1887– 89 and received a medal for bravery. From 1887-93 he was engaged by the Indian government to raise and fit out volunteer regiments. He has published Wide Awake Stories' (1884); Legends of the Panjab) (1883–90), etc., and is a member of philological and other learned societies.

TEMPLE, SIR William, English statesman: b. London, 1628; d. Moor Park, Surrey, 27 Jan. 1699. He was educated at Cambridge, spent six years on the Continent and returning in 1654, and not choosing to accept any office under Cromwell, occupied himself in the study of history and philosophy. On the Restoration he was chosen a member of the Irish convention, and in 1661 was returned for the county of Carlow. The following year he was nominated one of the commissioners from the Irish Parliament to the king, and removed to London. On the breaking out of the Dutch War, he was employed in a secret mission to the bishop of Münster which he executed so much to the satisfaction of the ministers that in the following year he was appointed resident at Brussels, and received a baronetcy. With De Witt he concluded the treaty between England, Holland and Sweden (February 1668), with a view to oblige France to restore her

conquests in the Netherlands. He also attended, as Ambassador Extraordinary, when peace was concluded between France and Spain at Aix-la-Chapelle, and subsequently residing at The Hague as Ambassador, enjoyed the friendship of De Witt, and also of the Prince of Orange, afterward William III. A change of politics led to the recall of Temple in 1671, who, refusing to assist in the intended breach with Holland, retired from public business, and employed himself in writing his (Observations on the United Provinces,' and part of his 'Miscellanies. In 1674 Temple was again Ambassador to the States-General, in order to negotiate a general pacification. Previously to its termination in the Treaty of Nimeguen (in 1678), he was instrumental in promoting the marriage of the Prince of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of the Duke of York, which took place in 1677. In 1679 he was recalled from The Hague, and shortly afterward_was elected to represent the University of Cambridge in Parliament. In 1681 he retired from public life altogether. He was on friendly terms with William III who occasionally visited him. (For his relations with Swift SWIFT, JONATHAN). His 'Memoirs' are important as regards the history of the times, as are likewise his Letters,' published by Swift after his death. His 'Miscellanies' consist of essays on various subjects: 'Gardening, The Cure of the Gout, Ancient and Modern Learning' (which provoked much controversy at the time), 'Health and Long Life,' 'Different Conditions of Life and Fortune,' 'Introduction to the History of England,' 'Poems and Translations, etc. Consult Courtenay, 'Life of Temple (1836); Macaulay's 'Essay) and Forster, 'Life of Swift) (Vol. I, 1875).

see

TEMPLE, Tex., city in Bell County, on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fé and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroads, about 220 miles northwest of Galveston, and 35 miles southwest of Waco. It was founded in 1882 by the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fé Railroad, and was chartered as a city the same year. It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region and has considerable manufacturing interests. The chief manufacturing establishments are agricultural-implement works, cottonseed-oil mills and cotton compresses, flour mills, chewing gum and candy factory and lumber mills. The city has handsome churches, public and parish schools, Saint Mary's Academy, two kindergartens, a business college, three large hospitals and a public library. The four banks have a combined capital of $580,000. Pop. (1920) 11,033.

TEMPLE, London, England, a district of the city lying between Fleet street and the Thames, and divided by Middle Temple Lane into the Inner and the Middle Temple, belonging to separate societies (see INNS OF COURT), each with its hall, library and gardens. The name is derived from the Knights Templars, who had their headquarters in England here. The two temples are separated by a wall from the rest of the city, and have entrance gates which are closed at night. The district is occupied, with few exceptions, exclusively by barristers and solicitors. In former times the members of the Temple were famous for the

masques, revels and banquets which they gave in their halls. To these entertainments there are many allusions in the old poets; kings attended them, the benchers joined in them and directed the students to dance. Among famous members of the Temple have been Beaumont, Sir Walter Raleigh, John Ford, Wycherley, Congreve, Cowper, Blackstone, Sheridan, Coke, Littleton, Clarendon, Somers and Eldon. Goldsmith and Johnson had chambers here, and here Charles Lamb was born and passed the first seven years of his life.

TEMPLE, a name applied in religious history particularly to the temple built by Solomon at Jerusalem as a House of the Lord, and to the temples which succeeded it, more especially the magnificent structure, erected by Herod the Great, which is often mentioned in the New Testament. Solomon's Temple was -built with the aid of an architect and skilled workmen from Phoenicia. The temple was an oblong stone building, 60 cubits in length, 20 in width and 30 in height. On three sides were corridors, rising above each other to the height of three stories, and containing rooms in which were preserved the holy utensils and treasures. The fourth or front side was open, and was ornamented with a portico, 10 cubits in width, supported by two brazen pillars, Jachin and Boaz (stability and strength). The interior was divided into the most holy place or oracle, 20 cubits long, which contained the ark of the covenant, and was separated by a curtain or veil from the sanctuary or holy place, in which were the golden candlesticks, the table of the shew-bread, and the altar of incense. The walls of both apartments and the roof and ceiling of the most holy place were overlaid with wood work, skilfully carved. None but the highpriest was permitted to enter the latter, and only the priests devoted to the temple service the former. The temple was surrounded by an inner court, which contained the altar of burntoffering, the brazen sea and lavers, and such instruments and utensils as were used in the sacrifices, which, as well as the prayers, were offered here. Colonnades, with brazen gates, separated this court of the priests from the outer court, which was likewise surrounded by a wall. This temple was destroyed about 586 B.C. by the Assyrians, and after the return from the Babylonish captivity some 70 years later, a second temple of the same form, but much inferior in splendor, was erected. Herod the Great rebuilt it, beginning the work about 20 B.C., of a larger size, surrounding it with four courts, rising above each other like terraces. This being the temple of the time of Christ possesses great interest. The lower court was 500 cubits square, on three sides surrounded by a double, and on the fourth by a triple row of columns and was called the court of the Gentiles, because individuals of all nations were admitted into it indiscriminately. A high wall separated the court of the women, 135 cubits square, in which the Jewish females assembled to perform their devotions, from the court of the Gentiles. From the court of the women 15 steps led to the court of the temple, which was enclosed by a colonnade, and divided by trellis-work into the court of the Jewish men and the court of the priests. In the middle of this enclosure stood the temple, of white

marble richly gilt, 100 cubits long and wide, and 60 cubits high, with a porch 100 cubits wide, and three galleries like the first temple, which it resembled in the interior, except that the most holy place was empty, and the height of Herod's temple was double the height of Solomon's. Rooms appropriated for different purposes filled the upper story above the roof of the inner temple. This edifice was destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D., and for many centuries the long-consecrated height has been occupied by the Mosque of Omar.

The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other ancient nations had temples for the worship of their gods, and the Mexicans and Peruvians, at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards in the New World, had splendid temples. On the sacrificial platforms of Aztec temples thousands of victims perished annually. The Greek and Roman temples were, as a rule, models of architectural grandeur and beauty. The word "temple" is sometimes, but not often, applied to Christian places of worship as a special designation, although frequently used in a figurative sense. The Mormons designate as "The Temple," the large structure in which they worship at Salt Lake City. Consult Fergusson, James, The Temple of the Jews' (1878); Smith, G. A., Jerusalem' (1908). See ARCHITECTURE.

TEMPLE, Order of the. See ORDERS.

ROYAL.

TEMPLE BAR, London, England, an arched gateway which formerly stood between Fleet street and the Strand, and divided the city from the liberty of Westminster. (See LONDON). It was a structure of the Corinthian order, designed by Sir . Wren, and built in 1670 of Portland stone. Over the gateway, on the east side, were statues of Queen Elizabeth and James I; and on the west side, of Charles I and II. The heads of persons executed for high treason were formerly exhibited on this gate. Here, also, on particular occasions, the corporation of London received the royal family, the heralds' proclamations, or any distinguished visitors. When the sovereign came in state the lord-mayor here delivered to him the sword of state, which was returned, and after this he rode bareheaded, immediately in front of the royal procession. As the gate seriously obstructed a crowded thoroughfare, it was removed in 1878, its site now being marked by the heraldic monster, a "griffin." The gate has been re-erected at Theobald's Park, Cheshunt.

TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, an institution of higher learning founded at Philadelphia in 1884 by Russell H. Conwell, pastor of the Baptist Temple. It was chartered by the State in 1888, and empowered to grant degrees in 1891, its name being changed from Temple College to Temple University in 1907. It was designed to offer instruction to young men whose occupations kept them busy during the day, and at first only evening instruction was offered; in 1891 a day school also was added. There are 18 departments with a range from kindergarten and academic to the highest university courses. Instruction is arranged in morning, afternoon and evening classes in all branches except medicine and dentistry, in which there are only day classes. The university is non-sectarian,

but is of a strongly religious atmosphere, and accomplishes a notable work in assisting those who could not otherwise obtain high educational advantages. In 1922-23 there were 408 instructors and 8,042 students. The value of the University's property was given as $760,684.

TEMPO (time), in music, the relative rate of movement or degree of quickness with which a piece of music is to be executed. The degrees of time are indicated by certain words such as lento (slow), adagio or largo (leisurely) andante (walking pace), allegro (gay or quick), presto (rapid), prestissimo (very rapid), etc. A tempo is the proper time. (See MUSIC). The word is also used in chess to indicate the period of a move, especially when the move is wasted.

SKULL.

TEMPORAL POWER (OF THE POPE). By this expression, in its generally received signification, is understood the sovereign civil rule which was exercised by the popes over the states of the Church with varying vicissitudes from the middle of the 8th century down to the year 1870, when the last remnant of the papal states was annexed to the United Kingdom of Italy.

The formal establishment of the temporal power dates from the year 754, when Pepin, king of the Franks, bestowed upon Pope Stephen II (who had sought his aid against the oppression of the Lombards) independent sovereignty over some 20 cities, thus constituting what was henceforth known as the state or patrimony of Saint Peter. Though apparently a new departure-one possibly unlooked for on the part of the Pope himself this addition of a temporal to the spiritual rule of the bishop of Rome was in reality but the natural outcome of pre-existing civil and political conditions. Among these may be mentioned the fact that the Roman Church was already in possession of numerous and extensive landed estates or patrimonies situated for the most part within the bounds of the Italian peninsula, and which were controlled or administered by the popes through their agents.

This state of things had gradually developed from very early beginnings, for we find that even during the period of the persecutions, the local church of Rome (whether organized legally as a burial society, or simply as a body corporate, holding property under the general laws of the empire) possessed not only the great cemeteries now known as the Catacombs, but also other property, as is clear from the edict of Milan. By a law of 321, the Emperor Constantine granted to all persons capable of making a will the right to bequeath property to the Church, and he himself gave an example of generosity in this respect by endowing munificently the various basilicas of Rome. Similar bequests in one form or another were made by wealthy Christians throughout the empire, one of the principal uses to which the property thus acquired was applied being to relieve the distress occasioned by the depredations of the barbarians who began to overrun Italy from the beginning of the 5th century. In this way the Roman Church had become very wealthy, and the popes were already great landed proprietors, owning vast estates in various parts of

tions of the rapacious Byzantine governors who ruled in the different Italian provinces, and in this connection, as well as in other ways, the vigilant protection of the popes proved beneficial to the people. It must be remembered that during this period the civil and political situation throughout the peninsula was in a condition bordering on the chaotic. The chronic state of unrest and insecurity which resulted from the incursions of the barbarians and the deplorable inefficiency of the imperial administration, made the interference of the popes in civil matters a real practical necessity. Theirs was the only authority that commanded general respect, and the common weal demanded that they should look after the material as well as the spiritual interests of their flock. That such was the true condition of affairs is amply shown forth in the papal correspondence of the time, especially in the letters of Gregory the Great (590-604). It is also worth noting that though they had ever-growing reasons to be dissatisfied with Byzantine rule, the popes (even those who succeeded Gregory) continued to remain faithful to the idea of a world-wide Christian empire, and exercised their influence to maintain in Italy its authority and prestige. But, as is well known, many of the emperors of that period were more preoccupied with theology than with matters pertaining to civil administration, and their repeated attempts to impose upon the bishops of the West subtle formulas of orthodoxy led to frequent conflicts, in some of which popes were violently dragged away to prison or death. Thus Silverius and Vigilius, Pelagius and Martin became the victims of imperial tyranny. On the refusal of Sergius I to accept the decrees of the Emperor Justinian II the latter commanded the protospatharius Zachary to arrest the Pope and bring him a prisoner to Constantinople, but the public spirit in Italy was already in revolt against this arrogant, high-handed policy, and the army interfered to prevent the execution of the imperial mandate. Again, in 727, Leo the Isaurian sent his edict against the use of images to Pope Gregory II with orders for his deposition in case he should refuse to comply. Gregory responded by denouncing the edict and excommunicating the exarch; again the soldiers arose in his defense, and the efforts of the imperial officers to carry out their instructions cost them their lives. In 733 the emperor confiscated all the Church's estates in Sicily, Bruttium, Lucania, Calabria and Naples; others were con

fiscated by the Lombards, and no security remained even for the inhabitants of Rome. The empire was unable to defend its subjects — worse than that, it even oppressed and plundered them. The only refuge left to the Romans and their spiritual as well as actually temporal head was to seek the aid of the friendly king of the Franks. It is not clear whether Pope Stephen II in taking this step had already in view the establishment of a civil principality under his own rule or not, but be that as it may, just then the relations between the papacy and the emperor were further strained by the publication of a fresh edict against the use of images emanating from a synod of Constantinople. A continuation of the old régime seemed no longer possible, the army of Pepin arrived in Italy in the summer of 754, and the independent state of Saint Peter was established, with the Pope as its civil ruler, in the same year. In view of the circumstances, it may be truly said that this distinction was bestowed upon the bishop of Rome in recognition of a twofold prerogative, namely, his prestige as head of the Church and defender of orthodoxy against Eastern aggression, and his character of national benefactor.

The papal dominion as constituted by the grant of Pepin comprised the cities of Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Casena, Forli Commachio and 15 other towns. In 1053 the duchy of Benevento was annexed, and between that period and the end of the 13th century the authority of the Roman See was acknowledged by many other free towns in Italy. In 1278 the Emperor Rudolf I confirmed the acquisitions made thus far, defined the boundaries of the papal states, and recognized the Pope's exclusive authority over them by absolving the inhabitants from their oath of allegiance to the empire. The papal dominion then included Perugia, Bologna, Bertinoro, the duchy of Spoleto, the exarchy of Ravenna and the marche of Ancona, but many of the towns were more or less independent. The Romagna was annexed at the end of the 15th century. Under Alexander VI and Julius II were added Faenza, Parma, Placentia and Reggio, and the papal states received their final additions in the 17th century, namely, Urbino, Ronciglione and the duchy of Castro. In 1797 the Romagna was seized by Napoleon and incorporated into the Cisalpine Republic. The following year Rome itself was taken by the French and the papal states were erected into the Roman Republic. Pius VII regained possession of his states in 1800, but they were soon retaken by the French, and finally (1809) incorporated with France, Rome being reckoned the second city of the empire. After the downfall of Napoleon (1814) Pius VII returned to Rome and was formally reinstated in his office of temporal ruler by the treaty of Vienna, mainly through the friendly support of the non-Catholic powers Russia, Prussia and England. In 1830 a rebellion broke out in Ancona and Bologna, the reason alleged by the insurgents being that the clerical rule in the provinces contrasted too unfavorably with the preceding French administration. This revolt was quelled through the aid of Austria, but another uprising occurred soon after, and the Austrians took occasion thereby to occupy the northern legations, while at the same time the French placed a garrison in Ancona. Oc

casional minor disturbances occurred between these events and 1848, when Pius IX, on account of an insurrection, was obliged to flee to Gaeta and Rome was declared a republic. The Pope was again restored to power through the armed intervention of France, Austria, Spain and Naples, and the Austrians occupied the northern legations or Romagna on his behalf until 1859, when their army was withdrawn. Soon after the province repudiated its allegiance to the Pope and its annexation to Sardinia was proclaimed. The French still continued to hold Rome in subjection to papal authority and Pius IX, with a view to withstand any further encroachments upon his dominions, raised an army, which was placed under the leadership of the able French general, Lamoricière. In the meantime Garibaldi and his followers, whose aim was the political unification of the Italian states under the rule of Victor Emmanuel, were conducting a successful campaign in Sicily and Naples. The news of this caused an outbreak in Urbino and the Marches in favor of Victor Emmanuel. The Sardinian troops came to the aid of the insurgents and after two encounters with the troops under Lamoricière compelled the latter to surrender with his whole army after a week's siege in Ancona (1860). The revolted provinces of Umbria, Urbino and the Marches, as well as the isolated provinces of Benevento and Pontecorvo, situated within the kingdom of Naples, were immediately annexed to Sardinia. Finally, on 20 Dec. 1870, the French troops having been withdrawn on account of the war with Prussia, Rome was entered practically without resistance by the troops of Victor Emmanuel, and the last vestige of temporal power disappeared. Victor Emmanuel having been proclaimed king over united Italy, took up his residence in the papal palace of the Quirinal and Pius IX withdrew to a life of seclusion (in the Vatican). considering himself as a prisoner unable to leave his retreat without compromising his dignity as head of the Church, or even giving occasion to riots and bloodshed. He never ceased to pro test emphatically against the spoliation of his rights as a temporal ruler and against the presence of the king and his court in the papal city. Leo XIII, though departing in many respects from the policy of his predecessor, maintained nevertheless throughout the same uncompromising attitude toward the question of the temporal power, and the same policy was steadfastly affirmed by his successor, Pius X. Such are, in briefest outline, the main facts pertain ing to the origin and history of this ecclesias tico-civil institution. It is beyond the scope of the present article to appreciate or criticize the motives either of those who labored to maintain it or of those who more or less directly sought its abolition. Still less pertinent to the purpose in view would be a speculation on the probable restoration of the same in the future. It must be granted that, considering the present political situation in Europe, the probability of a restoration of the temporal power, at least in its ancient form, seems rather remote. For all practical intents and purposes the different powers recognize as a fait accompli the incorporation of the papal dominions into the kingdom of Italy; though, on the other hand, it still remains true that this state of affairs has never yet received any for

mal, international ratification. Furthermore, the necessity, or even the utility, of such a restoration is a point concerning which there is considerable divergence of opinion even among Roman Catholics. It is a question concerning which no authoritative dogmatic pronouncement has been formulated by the Church; however, the firm and unmistakable attitude of the popes toward it cannot be looked upon by Catholics otherwise than deeply significant. All, even the most ultra-montane, must, of course, admit that the possession of a temporal sovereignty is not an essential prerogative of the successor of Saint Peter, since for so many centuries before it was established the Church was able to develop and fulfil so efficiently her mission in the world. Yet this temporal sovereignty is regarded by many as the means providentially established to protect the necessary independence of the Pope and the free exercise of his functions as spiritual head of the Church. Others, while admitting the main principle involved (namely, that the Pope should be free in his spiritual capacity) take a somewhat different view of the case. They remind us that the temporal power was the outcome of peculiar and to a great extent abnormal conditions. It was the best and perhaps the only solution at the time, and for centuries afterward of a vexed problem, partly political, partly religious; but at the same time it is not proved that had the conditions been otherwise some other régime of papal supremacy just as satisfactory would not have developed. But be that as it may, it is claimed that at least in the present social and political conditions of the Christian world, so different from those of the Middle Ages, the desired independence in spiritual matters can be secured without imposing on the Pope the burden of a temporal as well as a spiritual sovereignty. When, however, it is asked how this can be done, no very clear or satisfactory answer is forthcoming. It is plain from the nature of the case, as well as from past experience- notably the sojourn of the papacy at Avignon- that to have the Pope under the control or protection of any secular prince is dangerous for the best interests of religion. If the head of the Church be not himself an independent sovereign, it is hard to conceive a situation in which he would be free from undue political or national influence, especially if he is to be either the subject or guest of some temporal ruler. It is for a similar reason that the tounders of the American Republic wisely determined that the seat of the central or federal government should be located not in any of the States, but in a separate independent district, exempted from State jurisdiction, thus insuring greater freedom of action to the governing body whose duty it is to legislate impartially in the interests of the entire nation. These and other reasons are urged by the advocates of the temporal power and when it is not unreasonably objected that during the third of a century that has elapsed since the occupation of Rome by Victor Emmanuel the Pope has always enjoyed full freedom in the exercise of his spiritual jurisdiction; that never before has the moral influence of the papacy been so powerful and far-reaching, etc., the answer is made that while all this is true, there is nevertheless no sufficient guaranty that this liberty will continue to be granted in

the future; that, moreover, the present situation of the papacy is certainly abnormal, and that the increase of moral influence is due in great part to the fact that the popes have maintained a firm attitude, refusing to become the allies of the Italian government. Not a few are of the opinion that in the present political status of the civilized world a system of international guaranties would be a much more effectual means of securing for the Pope the permanent free exercise of his spiritual jurisdiction than could result from a restoration of the temporal power. However that may be, the most thoughtful statesmen allow that the problem is complicated and delicate that no solution thus far arrived at or suggested is free from grave practical difficulties. The temporal power of medieval and later times was certainly not without grave drawbacks and disadvantages as regards the interests of both rulers and subjects. That it has been the occasion of many evils and abuses, that it has often been a real impediment to the spiritual efficiency of the papacy few impartial students of history will venture to deny; yet it will doubtless be as readily admitted that being given the circumstances of the period the temporal power was a most useful, even necessary, factor in the evolution of Christianity; and whatever may be thought of its adaptability to future contingencies it will not be a matter for surprise to find that so many are still convinced of its permanent necessity, at least until something better shall have been devised to meet the exigencies of the case, and shall have demonstrated its superiority by actual experience.

Bibliography - Barry, W. F., 'The Papal Monarchy from Saint Gregory the Great to Boniface VIII (New York 1902); Brosch, 'Geschichte des Kirchenstaates' (2 vols., Gotha 1882); Bryce, James, The Holy Roman Empire (new ed., New York 1911); Cæsare, R. de, in North American Review (Vol. CLXXI, p. 869, 1901); Crispolti (Marquis), Filippo, in International Quarterly (March-June 1904); Döllinger, J. J. I. von, Papstthum und Kirchenstaat' (Munich 1861); Duchesne, L. M. O., 'Beginnings of the Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes, A.D. 754-1073 (Chicago 1908); Greenwood, A. D., 'The Empire and the Papacy in the Middle Ages' (London 1902); Gustine, G., 'La loi des garanties' (Paris 1901); Guggenberger, A., The Papacy and the Empire' (Saint Louis 1911); Hassett, M., in .Catholic University Bulletin (January 1904); Hergenröther, Joseph, 'Der Kirchenstaat seit der französischen Revolution' (Freiburg 1860); Ireland, John, in North American Review (Vol. CLXXI, p. 337, 1901); Manning, H. E., 'Temporal Power of the Pope' (London 1871); Pastor, Ludwig, 'History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages' (English trans. by Antrobus and Kerr, 12 vols., London 1906–12); Probyn, J. W., Italy from 1815 to 1890) (London 1891); Reumont, A. von, 'Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin 1870); Stillman, W. J., 'The Union of Italy, 1815-1895) (new ed., New York 1909); Tout, F. T., The Empire and the Papacy 913-1273 (new ed., London 1901); Valois, 'La France et le grand schisme d'occident' (Paris 1896-1902).

JAMES F. DRISCOLL, D.D., Rector, Saint Gabriel's Church, New Rochelle, N. Y.