Grande (Parus atricristatus) is notable for its glossy black crest, while the bridled titmouse (P. wollueberi) is a related species occurring in the southwestern United States, and is remarkable for the very conspicuous black and white markings on the head. Besides several other interesting species of Parus, the southwestern United States is the home of four or five very small titmice, belonging to the genera Psaltriparus and Auriparus. The former are called "bush-tits" and though very plainly colored with black, brown and plumbeous, their very small size, four inches or even less, and their large, woven, pensile nests, with lateral entrance, make them an interesting group. The gold tit (Auriparus flaviceps) is of about the same size, but is notable for the rich yellow head, the other upper parts being ashy and lower parts whitish. These little birds build great globular nests of twigs, in the bushes, lining them with down and feathers. The eggs are pale bluish speckled with brown.

Of the tits of the Old World, seven species occur in Great Britain, but one of them, the crested tit (Parus cristatus), is only an accidental visitor. The great tit (P. major) is the largest European species, though only about the size of our tufted titmouse. The general color is yellowish and gray, with white cheeks and black head and throat. The blue tit (P. cæruleus) and the cole tit (P. ater) are the commonest of the English species. The former has the top of the head light blue and a bluish cast to the rest of the plumage. It is the species usually called "tom-tit." The azure tit (P. cvanus) of Siberia, which is sky-blue and white, and the large Japanese tit (P. varius), which is handsomely marked with chestnut, will serve as examples of the more brightly colored titmice. The long-tailed tits of the genus Egithalos are remarkable not merely for their excessively long tails but because they build very elaborate cozy nests, which are purseshaped and hang free or are attached along one side to the trunk of a tree. The eggs are very numerous, as many as 20 having been found in one nest.

Consult in addition to standard ornithologies, Coues, 'Birds of the Northwest' (Washington 1874); and Birds of the Colorado Valley' (Washington 1887), and Evans, A. H., 'Birds' (in Cambridge Natural History,' Vol. IX, New York 1900).

TITTLEBAT TITMOUSE, the name of a London shop clerk who figures as the hero of "Ten Thousand a Year," a novel by Samuel Warren (q.v.).

TITULAR BISHOP, an episcopal title in the Roman Catholic Church substituted by Pope Leo XIII for the older one of bishop in partibus infidelium.

TITULAR CHURCH, a name given to the parish churches of Rome, as distinct from the patriarchal churches, which belong to the Pope, and from the oratories. Each titular church is under a cardinal priest, has a district assigned to it, and a font for baptism in case of necessity.

TITUS, companion and well-loved friend of Saint Paul. He was converted by the apostle (Tit. i, 4), at Antioch 50 or 51 A.D., and in the same year accompanied him to Jerusalem,

and was present at that first council which recognized Gentile converts as part of the Church, and exempted them from the burden of the Mosaic ritual (cf. Acts xv, 1-35 with Gal. ii, 1-3). Paul soon afterward carried out the liberty thus accorded by refusing to require Titus, a Greek, to be circumcised (Gal. ii, 3-5). Titus was subsequently with Paul at Ephesus (56), whence the former was sent on a special mission to the Corinthians, carrying with him Paul's second epistle to that church (2 Cor. viii, 6, 22, 23; xii, 18). When Titus returned (57 A.D.) he found the apostle in Macedonia (2 Cor. vii, 5-6, 13-15). Subsequently (65 or 66 A.D.) he was left in Crete to arrange the affairs of the Church and "ordain elders in every city (Tit. i, 5). Returning thence to Rome he was dispatched by Paul (66 or 67) to Dalmatia (2 Tim. iv, 10). Titus returned to his work in Crete, and died at an advanced age. See also TITUS, EPISTLE TO.

TITUS, Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, Roman emperor: b. 40 A.D.; d. Reate, 13 Sept. 81 A.D. He was the son of Vespasian, whom he succeeded as emperor in 79 A.D., and was brought up at the court of Nero with his friend Britannicus, whom he accompanied in his wars in Germany and Britain. Later he commanded a legion in the war of Vespasian against the Jews, conducting the campaign in Judæa in 69 in the place of his father, who was then called to the imperial throne. At the end of a long and cruel siege Jerusalem was taken by Titus 8 Sept. 70. Titus returned to Rome in 71, where he was rewarded with the title of Cæsar and given a part in the government of the empire. He early manifested the qualities of a humane and able ruler and he became the idol of the Roman people. The Colosseum, begun by Vespasian, was completed under his direction, and the public baths named in his honor, and other institutions for the public benefit were established by him

TITUS, Epistle to, one of the epistles of Saint Paul, stated to have been written to Titus, as bishop over the Cretans, from Nicopolis in Macedonia. It is known as one of the "Pastoral Epistles," because devoted chiefly to admonitions on the subject of pastoral duties. In this epistle Saint Paul describes what a bishop ought to be, and applies severe language to certain of the Cretans. This, and the two epistles to Timothy, have been subjected to much discussion. See TIMOTHY AND TITUS, EPISTLES TO.

TITUS ANDRONICUS. Several plays of the Shakespeare canon preserve a mystery due to almost total absence of external evidence; in the case of Andronicus' the tantalizing uncertainty arises from the existence of an unusually large mass of data. Shakespeare's substantial concern in the tragedy is avouched by the double testimony of Meres, who in 1598 lists Titus Andronicus' among Shakespeare's tragedies, and of Hemmings and Condell, who in 1623 included the play in the Shakespeare Folio. On the other hand, three quarto editions are anonymous, and though this is natural enough in the case of the first (1594), it is surprising that the publishers of the 1600 and 1611 quartos should not have mentioned Shakespeare's then popular name. Moreover,

a large majority of the best critics have been strong in their conviction that the marks of Shakespeare's mind are not evident in the plot, the characterization, or the language of this play. There is little of the unevenness here which one finds in works written by inferior authors and revised by Shakespeare; in versification as in dramatic power this tragedy is pretty consistent throughout, and it bears much more affinity to the work of Kyd or Peele than to Shakespeare's. The problem is complicated by references to what may conceivably have been earlier versions of our play. A drama called Titus and Vespacia' (Vespasian?) was acted for the first time, 11 April 1592. We cannot positively determine whether this was an old form of Titus Andronicus' or, as the title more naturally suggests, a quite unrelated work on the subject of two historical Roman emperors. Another work, called by Henslowe 'Titus and Andronicus' or 'Andronicus,' was put on the stage as a new work in January 1594, by the Earl of Sussex's company and revived in June of the same year by the Lord Admiral's and Lord Chamberlain's (the last Shakespeare's company). On 6 Feb. 1594, A Noble Roman History of Titus Andronicus' was licensed to John Danter, and in the same year our play, called The Most Lamentable Roman Tragedy of Titus Andronicus,' was printed by Danter for Edward White and Thomas Millington. The subsequent quarto editions in 1600 and 1611 were printed for White, and all three were sold at the same shop. Without entering into fuller discussion of this evidence and of other entries in the Stationers' Register, it may be said that the records seem to establish the identity of Henslowe's Titus and Andronicus' with our play as printed in 1594. (The contrary conclusions of Prof. G. P. Baker, Publications of Modern Language Association 66-76, 1901, have been invalidated by the discovery in 1905 of the 1594 quarto). If we eliminate Henslowe's earlier Titus and Vespacia' as probably unrelated, there seems little reason to believe that any version of Titus Andronicus' existed in Shakespeare's lifetime which differed essentially from that we possess. Danter licensed 'Titus Andronicus' for publication (6 Feb. 1594) on the same day on which Sussex's company is last recorded as acting it, and his manuscript, printed later in the year, would seem to be that which they acted. We have no reason to believe that Shakespeare revised any plays either for this company or for Pembroke's company, which is said also to have performed the piece. The text of the play in the Shakespeare Folio of 1623 must, on the other hand, be that acted by the Lord Chamberlain's company in June, 1594, or later. Since the differences between these versions, however, are relatively quite unimportant (Act III, sc. ii is added in the Folio), it appears as likely on bibliographical as on stylistic grounds that Shakespeare had no more than a slight part in the play.

No direct source for Titus Andronicus' has been discovered. Its relation to two later continental works, 'Aran en Titus' (Aaron and Titus) by the Dutch poet Jan Vos (printed 1641) and a German play of Titus Andronicus and the arrogant empress (ca. 1620), has been learnedly discussed by H. De W. Fuller (Pub

lications Modern Language Association 1-65, 1901); but it seems probable that these foreign works, as well as another German play of which traces exist, are based upon perversions of the extant Titus Andronicus' text, as disseminated by traveling English actors, and not, as Fuller argues, upon two hypothetical earlier English plays. Early 17th century allusions to "Titus Andronicus,' though not very numerous, are such as to prove that the play was popular with the masses of the public. Later, John Downes, writing of the performances of Sir William Davenant's company after the Restoration, mentions Titus Andronicus' among several others which "being old plays, were acted but now and then; yet being well performed were very satisfactory to the town." In 1687 Edward Ravenscroft published an adaptation Titus Andronicus, or the Rape of Lavinia. Acted at the Theatre Royal,' with a preface containing some important remarks concerning the old play. Among the more un conventional modern theories regarding the authorship of Titus Andronicus' may be noted Grosart's argument that it was written by Greene, Englische Studien' (1896); J. M. Robertson's that it is essentially Peele's 'Did Shakespeare write Titus Andronicus) (1905), and an ill-considered recent hypothesis of H. D. Gray that the play was originally by Shakespeare, revised by Greene and Peele, 'Flügel Memorial Volume' (1916).

TUCKER BROOKE.

TITUSVILLE, Pa., city in Crawford County, on Oil Creek and on the Pennsylvania and the New York Central railroads, 100 miles north of Pittsburgh and 50 miles southeast of Erie, Pa. The city is on a plain which slopes slightly toward the south and east. The natural drainage is supplemented by an excellent system of sewerage. The water is obtained from artesian wells. The broad streets are largely paved and tree-lined. Electric trolley lines traverse the principal streets. The manufacturing industries consist of one of the largest iron works in the country, a high grade steel works, machine shops and foundries, large oil refineries, paraffine works, large branch of the American radiator works, large branch of the Bethlehem Steel Company, chemical works, planing mills, specialty works, cutlery works and an electric light and power plant. The output consists of iron, car tanks, steam engines and boilers, forgings, oil well machinery and fittings, gasoline engines, refined oils, gasoline, etc. There are large oil fields in the vicinity and the first well sunk for petroleum was drilled just outside of the city limits in the summer of 1859, striking oil on 27 August of that year. There are three banks consisting of a national bank, a commercial bank and a trust company. One of the finest banking buildings in the State was erected in 1918. Among other public buildings are 12 large edifices and two halls for religious services, a high school with a four-year course, four graded public schools and a kindergarten, all under one superintendent; Saint Joseph's Academy, kindergarten and parish school. The city has also an excellent library, "Benson Memorial Library," an excellent Young Men's Christian Association. and Young Women's Christian Association and the Titusville Hospi

tal. Titusville was first settled in 1796, becoming a borough in 1847 and chartered as a city in 1866. The town was laid out in streets in 1809. It suffered great damage from flood and fire 5 June 1892 which destroyed one-third of the city with a loss of 60 lives. The city owns and operates the waterworks and one of the electric light plants. The government is vested in the mayor and five commissioners, the mayor being elected for four years and the commissioners for two years. The majority of the people are native born, the predominating_foreign element consisting of Scandinavians, Irish and Germans. Pop. 8,550.

TIUI, te-we', or TIVI, te'vē, Philippines, pueblo, province of Albay: on Lagano Bay, on the northeast coast, 23 miles north by west from the pueblo of Albay. It is the centre of a hemp growing region, and exports hemp by way of Tabaco. It is especially celebrated for its thermal springs of iron and sulphur waters with medicinal properties, which are visited by large numbers of natives. Pop, about 11,000.

TIUMEN, tyoo-měny', Russia, in Siberia, government of Tobolsk, 120 miles southwest of Toboisk, on the Tura River. It is an important centre of trade, lying on several commercial routes, with railroad communication. It has a large technical school. Its principal manufactures are leather, soap, candles, carpets, pottery and woolen goods. These articles are exported to China, the Kirghiz_steppe, Bokhara and everywhere in Siberia. The Tiumeñ and woven carpets are especially renowned. In Tieumen was located a famous exile prison. Pop. about 35,000.

TIVERTON, R. I.,_town in Newport County, on Narragansett Bay, near Fall River, Mass., and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. There are cotton manufactories and oyster and fishing industries. Pop. 4,032.

TIVOLI, të'vō-lē, Italy, in the province and district of Rome, on the Teverone or Aniene, 16 miles northeast of the capital. Its position on a rocky height overlooking the river is extremely picturesque. Tivoli commands a fine view of Rome and the Campagna. It contains a fine modern cathedral which contrasts sadly with the other town buildings. Its antiquities are numerous and interesting, and include a temple of the Tiburtine sybil, temple of Vesta, 'villa of Hadrian, etc. The artificial cascades formed by the Teverone constitute an interesting feature of the landscape and supply power for the electric lighting of Rome, and for various factories. The old Latin name was Tibur, important in the Latin Confederation. It became subject to Rome in 338 B.C. The population of the commune is about 15,000. Consult Baedecker's Central Italy and Rome.'

TLAPALLAN, the mythical home of the Toltecs, and the land from which came their great culture god, Quetzalcoatl, and to which he returned when his mission on earth was done. Sce QUETZALCOATL; MEXICO MYTHOLOGY; CHOLULA.

TLAXCALA, tläs-kä'lä, or TLASCALA, Mexico, the smallest state in the republic, situated between the states of Puebla, Hidalgo and Mexico. Area, 1,534 square miles. The capital, Tlaxcala, located about 60 miles east of Mexico

City, was in ancient time a large city, but its 1919 population is only 2,800. It has a bishop's palace and a statehouse that retains much of their former grandeur. The holy well of Ocotlan, in the suburbs, is covered by a costly and imposing sanctuary. The state lies within the plateau region, and its surface is broken by high mountains. The principal occupations are agriculture and some manufacture of cloth, though iron and silver are found in the mountains. Tlaxcala was at the time of the Discovery, a powerful native state which had maintained its independence of the Aztecs. It became an ally of Cortes and retained its own government for a time under the Spaniards. Pop. about 192,000, almost all Indians.

TLEMCÉN, tlěm-sĕn', Algeria, in the province of Oran, 70 miles southwest of the city of Oran, and 30 miles from the Mediterranean. It is a walled town with nine gates, and is divided into three sections, namely, the citadel and military establishment; the business portion, containing the residences of foreigners; and the native section. The town stands on a mountain slope at an elevation of 2,500 feet, amid olive-groves and vineyards. It has 32 mosques, Protestant and Catholic churches, a museum and Jewish synagogue. The manufactures comprise textiles, carpets and leather articles, burnooses, etc. Trade is important, especially with Morocco. It is a historic city, some of the mosques dating from the 11th century. At the height of its prosperity, in the 13th and 14th centuries, it is reputed to have had 125,000 population. Pop. 39,874.

TLINKET, or TLINKIT, a group of tribes which constitute a distinct linguistic stock known as Kolushan. They inhabit the coast and islands of southern Alaska. Previous to the advent of the white men their houses were rudely constructed, and their trade carried on with neighboring tribes. The exchange of slaves was carried on extensively, and they were treated by their masters with the greatest cruelty. They have greatly diminished of late years, till there now remain but about 5,000, a large number of them being employed in the canning industry.

TO A SKYLARK. Shelley's 'Skylark,' perhaps the most famous of English lyrics, was written at Leghorn, Italy, and published with 'Prometheus Unbound' in 1820. It is composed of 21 five-line stanzas, each of which ends with a long line that represents the brief pause of the bird on the wing as it prepares for ye higher flight. Mrs. Shelley says: "In the spring we spent a week or two at Leghorn, borrowing the house of some friends who were absent on a journey to England. It was on a beautiful summer evening while wandering among the lanes, whose myrtle hedges were the bowers of the fireflies, that we heard the carolling of the skylark, which inspired one of the most beautiful of his poems." This exquisite lyric has been used in generations of school "readers" and "selections," but even such familiar handling has not served to tarnish the peculiar qualities in which it still remains matchless and unapproachable. Shelley's skylark, unlike Wordsworth's, loses itself in the empyrean; it is a spirit not a bird, an embodied voice, an aspiration. It is beside the mark to urge that the poem has "the defects of its qualities"; for,

from the standpoint of what the poet meant to do, it has no defects. It is a perfect work of art, having a worthy purpose which it perfectly attains. The poem pursues the flight and the song of the bird swiftly up to the blue; four exquisite similes liken the lark to the poet, to the maiden, to the glow-worm and to the rose; the song of the bird sings itself in the heart of the poet; at the end comes the pathos of the infinite and unsatisfied desire never absent from Shelley's nature lyrics. The criticism of almost a century has applied to the Skylark) the epithets which have long since become banal but which seem inevitable: it is melodious, exquisite, ethereal, ecstatic. As such it is unsurpassed and is probably unsurpassable. Wordsworth's Skylark' represents a more human point of view; Keats' Ode to a Nightingale,' an equally consummate achievement of a different kind.

MARION TUCKER.

TOAD, an amphibian of the anourous family Bufonida or some related family in the series Arcifera, in allusion to the structure of the shoulder girdle. The Bufonida present the following distinctive features: The tongue is well developed, fixed to the front of the mouth, and has the hind end free. The result of this arrangement is that it can be filliped by means of appropriate muscles with the greatest speed and precision, and thus serves these usually totally toothless animals in the capture of insects which adhere to this mucous-coated organ. Teeth are always absent from the jaws, but may be present on the vomer in a few foreign genera. The hind toes are more or less webbed, the front toes webless and the ends of the toes are neither clawed nor furnished with adhesive discs. In all cases the vertebræ are procœlous or have their bodies hollowed in front, the transverse processes of the sacrum are panded and ribs are absent. This family is an extensive one of about 15 genera and 100 species and is cosmopolitan, but is especially well represented in tropical America. The species differ considerably in habits, most of them being terrestrial burrowers, but some are aquatic, others arboreal.

ex

Within the United States, Bufo is the only genus, being represented by 9 or 10 species, most of which belong to the southwestern United States and Mexico. The common eastern toad (B. lentiginosus) is found in one or cther of its sub-species throughout the eastern United States and Canada. The familiar roughness and wartiness of the skin of toads is due to the presence of glands and, especially on the head, to bony deposits. They are chiefly terrestrial and nocturnal, and feed upon insects of which they destroy large numbers. Toads visit the water in March or April, their breeding season, for the purpose of depositing their eggs, which are in long strings and are fertilized by the male upon their extrusion. During the mating season the males are very noisy at night and so pugnacious that they sometimes kill one another in their encounters. Development takes place rapidly and the tadpole-stage is passed in three or four months, when the young toads leave the water in multitudes. The popular repugnance to these perfectly harmless animals has no doubt arisen from their unprepossessing aspect and outward appearance. No venom or poison apparatus of

VOL. 26 42

any kind exists in these creatures; and save that the secretions of the skin may be of acrid or irritant nature when brought in contact with cut or exposed surfaces, they are utterly harmless to man. There is a swelling above the eyes covered with pores and large, thick and prominent enlargements behind the eyes which secrete an acrid fluid, which protects these animals from the attack of carnivorous mammals. They also swell up with air when attacked by snakes. When handled, toads frequently eject urine from the vent, but the widespread belief that the contact of this fluid with the skin produces warts is utterly unfounded. Toads are extremely tenacious of life and can exist a long time without food; their hibernation in mud, cracks and holes has probably given rise to the stories of their being found in places where they must have existed for centuries without food and air. These stories, however, have no foundation in fact, for Dr. Buckland proved, by direct experiment, that no toad can live for two years if deprived of food and air. Another common belief that toads are often rained down is probably to be explained by the fact that great numbers of young toads frequently leave, during showers of rain, the vicinity of pools in which their larval life was spent. Toads are really extremely interesting animals, and much entertainment can be derived from their observation.

Among foreign toads are the great Bufo agua, large enough to fill a quart measure, of the West Indies and South America; the green toad (B. viridis) of Europe, noted for its change of color; the long-tongued toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis) of Mexico, which feeds on termites; the European fire-toad (Bombinator igneus), so called from its brilliant red under parts and belonging to the family Discoglossida; and the remarkable Surinam toads, which are tongueless and carry the young in little cavities on the back. The last belongs to the distinct family Pipide. The spade-foot toad (q.v.) and the tree-toads or tree-frogs (q.v.) belong respectively to the families Scaphiopide and Hylide. Many of the toads have remarkable and interesting breeding habits, for accounts of which reference must be made to works of herpetology. Consult Boulanger, E. G., Reptiles and Batrachians' (New York 1914); Cope, E. D., ‘Batrachia of North America' (Washington 1889); Boulenger, G. A., 'Tailless Betrachia) (London 1892); Dickerson, M. C., The Frog Book' (New York 1914); Gadow, 'Amphibia and Reptiles' (New York and London 1901); Kirkland, 'Habits, Food and Economic Value of the American Toad (in Bull. 6, Hatch Exper. Sta., Amherst, Mass., 1897); Sampson, American Naturalist' (1900).

TOAD-FLAX, a common roadside weed (Linaria linaria) belonging to the family Scrophulariacea. It somewhat resembles a snap-dragon, but is smooth and has many linear leaves, either alternate or opposite and verticillate on the lower portions of the stem, and very pale green. The stem is prolonged by a terminal bracted densely flowered raceme. The blossoms are pale yellow with a short spur, a two-lipped corolla, the lower lip spreading and three-lobed, with a base so enlarged as nearly to close the throat with an orange-colored

palate. This combination of orange and yellow has given rise to the name "butter-and-eggs." It is also called ramstead. The plant has been naturalized from Europe and is rather pretty, but it is very tenacious and very difficult to eradicate.

A native toad-flax is L. canadensis, a slender plant, with blue flowers and with a tendency toward oppositeness. The Kenilworth ivy (Cymbalaria cymbalaria) is also called ivyleafed toad-flax and is a glabrous trailing perennial, with reniform-orbicular leaves and bluish flowers. L. triornithophora, a European plant, is peculiar for its purple, long-spurred flowers blooming in whorls of three and resembling birds, which has suggested the Latin name, "three-birds" toad-flax. The American bastard toad-flax (Comandra umbellata) is a delicate, pale green, smooth plant of the sandal-wood family, with greenish white or purplish, campanulate corollas and oblong leaves quite unlike the Linaria. In England Thesium linophyllum, with leaves like those of toad-flax, is known by the same name as Comandra.

TOADFISH, any fish of the genus Batrachus, so called from the large head, wide gape and generally toad-like appearance. The com

mon toad-fish (B. tau) is from eight inches to a foot long, light brown marbled with black. There are about 12 species, dwelling principally in tropical and sub-tropical seas.

TOADSTONE, (1) in geology, an old English name for certain amygdaloidal basaltic rocks occurring in Cumberland, England. The name is also applied to a mottled, apparently spherulitic felsite, found near Boston. (2) Fragments of rocks or precious stones, resembling toads either in color or form, also fossils of various kinds, supposed to possess special therapeutic virtues. Such objects were for many centuries highly prized in Europe, being worn as rings or amulets.

TOADSTOOLS, properly fungi of the family Agaricacea, which includes the edible mushrooms. See FUNGI.

TOASPERN, Otto, American artist: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 26 March 1863. He was graduated at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich (1888); was the pupil of N. Gysis and P. Nauen; and became an instructor in the National Academy of Design, New York. He is best known as an illustrator of Life; Ladies' Home Journal; Century; Harper's and several leading European periodicals.

TOAST, originally bread dried or scorched before the fire. In the 16th century it became the fashion in England to add toasted bread to drinks. From this habit the term toast came to be applied to a drink of honor proposed to some person or sentiment during the course or at the conclusion of a meal. The growth of social drinking in the 17th century greatly increased the custom of toasting, and it became common to toast not only the reigning monarchs, the hosts and the flag, but each person of the assembled company, absent friends and numerous sentiments. Finally the term came to denote not only the drink but the person or sentiment toasted, and in this dual sense the word is used to-day. Toasts are properly drunk standing, and it is the modern custom to have some person present reply to the sentiment pro

posed in an appropriate speech. Consult Chamber's Book of Days' and Valpy's 'History of Toasting (1881).

TOBACCO, the common name applied (1) to plants of the genus Nicotiana, of which there are a large number of species, and (2) to the dried leaves of these plants prepared in various ways for smoking, chewing or snuffing. Originating in America, the use of tobacco has been extended into practically all parts of the world and, indeed, it has come to be incomparably the most generally used of all narcotics. It appears that the name tobacco was derived from the word tabaco, originally employed by the natives of Haiti to designate the tube used by them in smoking or taking snuff and adopted by the Spaniards as the name of the product most generally used in smoking; although other products than true tobacco were taken by the natives in the form of snuff. The habit-forming properties or narcotic effects of tobacco are due to its content of nicotine and related alkaloids.

The tobacco plant belongs to the family of Solanaceæ and is thus related to the tomato, potato, eggplant, red pepper and jimson weed. There are some 50 or more species of Nicotiana but only two of these, N. tabacum and N. rustica, are of economic importance. The Indians of western North America, however, held N. quadrivalvis in high esteem for smoking purposes. Also, N. sylvestris, N. alata and a few others are used to some extent for ornamental purposes. Additional well-known species are glauca, longiflora, glutinosa, trigonophylla. Nearly all species of Nicotiana are native to America, but N. suavolens appears to be indigenous to Australia. All of the more important commercial types of tobacco are produced from N. tabacum. This is a coarse, rankgrowing annual, reaching three to six feet or more in height. The leaves are simple, alternately arranged on the stem, very large but quite varied in size, ovate to lanceolate in shape, entire or with wavy margin, petiolated or sessile and decurrent. The number of leaves varies markedly in the different varieties but is not much affected by differences of environment. The green portions of the plant are covered with soft hairs either branched or single stalked, some of which are capitate and glandular, secreting a viscid, gummy substance. Stomata occur on both surfaces of the leaf. The inflorescence is a terminal panicle producing large flowers ranging in color from deep red through various shades of pink to white, a light pink being the more common color. Under favorable conditions flowering branches also develop from buds borne in the leaf-axils. The calyx of the flower is bellshaped, four or five-cleft. The corolla tube is funnel-shaped with spreading and pointed lobes. The blossom is normally self-fertilized. five stamens are attached to the base of the corolla tube. The stigma is capitate. The capsule is two to four-valved, bearing a very large number of seed. The seed are small, there being 300,000 to 400,000 in an ounce. There are numerous distinctive varieties of N. tabacum and of the leading commercial varieties there are many sub-varieties or local strains bearing distinctive names but usually differing among themselves only in minor details. In some instances, however, important commercial types

The