of tobacco are produced from mixtures of distinct sorts designated collectively by the type name rather than by distinctive varietal names. This is notably true of Cuban and Turkish tobaccos. N. rustica is an annual with a much branched stem and large, ovate leaves with petiole. The corolla tube of the blossom is cylindrical with rounded lobes and is greenish yellow in color. The seed are about three times the size of those of tabacum. Rustica is decidedly earlier in maturing than is tabacum. It is not grown commercially in America but is extensively cultivated in India and in certain sections of Asia Minor and Russia, and to some extent in other European countries.

History. Tobacco was widely used by the Indians at the time of the discovery of America by Columbus and relics of the Mound Builders show that pipe smoking was a very ancient custom among the aborigines. On landing in the West Indies in 1492 members of Columbus' crew observed that the natives smoked rolls of dried tobacco leaves. When the Spaniards landed in Mexico in 1519 they found the natives cultivating tobacco with care and skill. It was believed by them to possess great curative powers for such diseases as bronchitis, asthma and rheumatism. Other aromatic materials such as liquidambar were frequently mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes. The natives of the Orinoco forests of Venezuela understood the use of tobacco and the preparation and use of tobacco by the natives of Brazil are described in detail by André Thevet who visited that region in 1555. For smoking, the dried leaves were rolled into a small cylinder enclosed in a leaf of corn or palm. Similarly, when Cartier discovered what is now Canada he found the Indians drying tobacco leaves in the sun. The powdered leaves were smoked in pipes made of stone or wood. Early explorers traveling through the interior of the country found the habit of smoking very general among the aborigines from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. The pipe of peace carried by the Indian tribes, which was an elaborately carved and decorated object, was smoked in common by those attending grand councils and was held very sacred. The tobacco cultivated by the Indians of North America to the east of the Mississippi was N. rustica while in Central and South America N. tabacum was the species principally grown. It has already been made clear that the American aborigines used tobacco in the form of cigars and for pipe smoking and, moreover, it is recorded that chewing the leaf was practised in some sections, while in South America the manufacture of snuff had reached a perfection which in some respects has never been surpassed. Thus, the American Indians had evolved methods of cultivating tobacco and preparing it in all forms which are now used. Finally, it is stated that a great North American tribe which dwelt near Lake Huron engaged in the cultivation of tobacco on a commercial scale, the product being sold to other tribes. According to early authorities, the Spaniards began the culture of tobacco in Haiti prior to 1535. Shortly afterward it was extended to the island of Trinidad whose product soon became famous in Europe. Tobacco culture was soon developed on a large scale in the West Indies and in Venezuela and Brazil.

At least four distinct varieties of N. tabacum were grown, viz.: (1) A large broad-leaf type; (2) a long narrow-leaf "Ox-tongue" form; (3) a type resembling (2) but with broader leaves; (4) a type with very small leaves. Thus, prior to the settlement of Jamestown, the Spaniards and Portuguese had developed an important trade in tobacco between Europe and the West Indies and South America. John Rolfe began the culture of tobacco at Jamestown in 1612 from seed brought from South America or the West Indies and in 1619 20,000 pounds were shipped to England. The growing of tobacco in Maryland began about 1631 and soon became an important enterprise. These two States have continued to grow tobacco in large quantities up to the present day. The Virginia colonists at first grew the crop on the bottom lands of the tide-water region. As the settlers moved further inland, however, it was found that the more elevated and somewhat heavier soils produced tobacco better suited to trade requirements. Overproduction of tobacco soon became a serious menace to the welfare of the colonists and an inspection service was established in order to prevent the export of damaged or inferior leaf. Attempts were made also to limit the acreage grown but with indifferent success. It appears that the growers learned at a very early date the influence of the soil and the cultural and curing methods on the character of leaf tobacco produced. Thus, the selection of suitable soils, the proper spacing of the plants in the field, use of certain methods of manuring and following definite practices of topping, "suckering," harvesting and curing came to be recognized in the first few decades of practical culture as being of fundamental importance. In the main, presentday cultural methods, therefore, differ from those of the early colonists in details rather than in fundamental principles. The exports of tobacco from Virginia had reached 18,000,000 pounds in 1700, and about 40,000,000 pounds in 1750 while at the outbreak of the Revolution the combined exports of Virginia and Maryland amounted to 100,000,000 pounds. Prior to the Revolutionary War the production of tobacco in the other colonies was not of much importance, but during the past century there was an enormous expansion in total production in the United States. New centres of production were developed and the crop as a whole became differentiated into a number of distinctive types. After the close of the Revolution pioneer settlers from Virginia and Maryland carried the culture of tobacco into Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri and Ohio. The tobacco produced in western Kentucky and Tennessee, however, found its way to market through New Orleans while the product of eastern Ohio was sent to Baltimore. Missouri at one time became a leading tobacco-producing State although in recent years the production has fallen off to a nominal figure. During the first quarter of the last century the culture of cigar leaf tobacco began to assume importance in the Connecticut Valley and by the middle of the century the cigar tobacco districts of the Miami Valley of Ohio, the Gadsden area in Florida and the New York areas had become established. Next came the development of the Lancaster, Pa., district and, beginning about 1870, the

culture of cigar leaf developed very rapidly in southern Wisconsin. As tobacco culture in Virginia was pushed forward onto the gray lands of the south central border counties and into North Carolina a lighter and finer-textured product was obtained. About 1825 began the use of charcoal in curing which had the effect of further improving the quality of the lightcolored leaf and subsequently the charcoal was replaced by a system of flues for leading out of the barn the smoke from the fuel used in curing. In this manner began the development of the vast bright flue-cured tobacco industry. During the latter part of the century this industry spread into eastern North Carolina and South Carolina. Tobacco culture had been introduced into the Blue Grass region of Kentucky at an early date but the discovery of the White Burley variety in Brown County, Ohio, in 1864 revolutionized the industry in central Kentucky and southern Ohio and the Burley type soon came to be produced in enormous quantities. The outstanding event of the past quarter century in the industry is the development in the Connecticut Valley and in western Florida of the shade-grown cigar wrapper leaf industry, a very intensive and highly specialized agricultural enterprise. Turning to the introduction of tobacco into foreign countries, it appears that the plant was first grown in France in 1556 by André Thevet from seed taken back by him on his return from Brazil. The plant attracted little attention, however, till introduced and exploited at the royal court by Jean Nicot, Ambassador to Portugal, whose name became immortalized in the generic name of tobacco, Nicotiana. Tobacco also was first grown in Portugal and in Spain at about this time, and almost immediately was introduced into Belgium, the Netherlands and Rome. Upon his return to England from Virginia in 1585 Sir Richard Grenville introduced pipe smoking as practised by the Indians. For a full half century after its introduction into Europe tobacco was used almost exclusively as a medicinal agent and it was generally believed to possess wonderful curative properties. During the first half of the 17th century however, indulgence in tobacco became very general in most of Europe although in some instances strenuous efforts were made by the authorities to prevent its use. Amsterdam and Rotterdam became at the outset the leading distributing centres for American-grown tobacco. The culture and the use of tobacco were introduced into India, Persia and other Asiatic countries carly in the 17th century.

Commercial Types of Tobacco. The differentiation of leaf tobacco into types has reference primarily to the different uses of the leaf in manufacture. A further distinction is frequently made as to the district or locality in which the product is grown. In the United States there are eight important commercial types of tobacco, viz.: (1) cigar leaf; (2) dark fire-cured export; (3) White Burley; (4) bright flue-cured or yellow tobacco; (5) dark aircured manufacturing; (6) Maryland and eastern Ohio export; (7) Virginia sun-cured; (8) perique. The cigar leaf type is used almost exclusively in the domestic manufacture of cigars. There are three sub-types of cigar tobacco: (1) wrapper leaf used as the outer

covering of the cigar; (2) binder leaf used for holding the cigar's shape; (3) filler leaf which makes up the body of the cigar. Wrapper leaf is grown chiefly in the Connecticut and Housatonic valleys of New England and in the Gadsden-Decatur district of Florida and Georgia. Binder leaf is produced mainly in Dane, Rock, Vernon and Crawford counties of Wisconsin and in the Big Flats district of New York. The leading centres for the production of filler leaf are the Lancaster area of Pennsylvania, the Miami Valley district of Ohio and the Onondaga district of New York. The dark fire-cured type is exported to the extent of about 80 per cent of the total production, being unsuited for domestic manufacture except in making snuff and for limited use as a plug wrapper. This type is grown in some 20 counties of central Virginia, in the Clarksville and Hopkinsville, and the Paducah districts of western Kentucky and Tennessee and the Henderson or Stemming district of Kentucky. Great Britain is the heaviest purchaser of firecured leaf and the other principal foreign purchasers have been Italy, Germany, France, Spain, Austria and Belgium. This type of leaf is of heavy body, dark in color, rich in nicotine and possesses a distinctive creosotic or smoky smell and taste because of the combustion products absorbed from the smoke used in the process of curing. The White Burley is distinctly a domestic manufacturing type, but little of it being exported. It burns well, is of light body, rather neutral in flavor and yields a large proportion of light colored leaf. Its one most important characteristic, however, is its remarkable capacity for absorbing the liquid sweetening materials or sauces used in the manufacture of the sweetened type of plug chewing tobacco. For this purpose the Burley has no equal. It is also used very extensively in the manufacture of cut-plug smoking and fine-cut chewing tobaccos and in the production of cigarettes. White Burley is grown chiefly on the rich limestone soils of central and northern Kentucky and in southern Ohio. Considerable quantities, also, are produced in a few counties of western West Virginia and southeastern Indiana. The bright flue-cured or yellow tobacco has come to be the world's most important type in point of quantity consumed. In domestic manufacture the chief uses of this type are in the production of granulated smoking tobaccos, cigarettes and the flat type of plug chewing tobacco. It is our most important cigarette type. In recent years flue-cured leaf has been a very aggressive type in foreign markets and at the present time more than half the total production is exported, the largest foreign buyers being England, China and Canada. There are two subdivisions of the flue-cured producing district, namely, the Old Belt section, embracing the northern central counties of North Carolina and adjoining border counties of Virginia, all in the Piedmont region, and the New Belt section of eastern North Carolina and South Carolina, lying in the Coastal Plain region. The most distinctive characteristic of typical flue-cured tobacco is its lemon or orange yellow color. In the region of Kentucky and Tennessee lying between the Burley section to the east and the dark fire-cured section on the west there are two districts known as the One

sucker and the Green River which produce large quantities of dark air-cured tobaccos used both for domestic manufacture and for export. The one-sucker tobacco is used for the domestic manufacture of twist chewing tobacco and for the so-called rehandling export trade with South Africa, the West Indies and Central and South American countries. The Green River tobacco is used for the manufacture of long-cut chewing and for export to England. The Maryland and eastern Ohio tobaccos have been exported to Europe for centuries, France and The Netherlands being the chief purchasers. The Maryland leaf also is used to some extent in domestic manufacture. This tobacco is comparatively light in body and color, dry and chaffy and has good burning qualities but is rather characterless in aroma. In the eastern Ohio district the old piebald or spangled type has been largely replaced in recent years by White Burley. In a few counties in the vicinity of Richmond, Va., a dark type of leaf known as sun-cured is produced although in late years the old method of partially curing the leaf in direct sunlight has been largely abandoned in favor of air-curing. This tobacco is used in the manufacture of the flat type of chewing tobacco. Perique tobacco is grown only in Saint James Parish, La., and the total production is not large. This type deserves mention because of its distinctive aroma, due primarily to the unique method of curing employed by the growers. Perique is chiefly used in the preparation of fancy smok ing mixtures to which it adds aroma. To the above-named domestic types entering into commerce must be added at least three foreign types of special importance, namely, the Cuban, the Sumatra and Java and the so-called Turkish. In a small area of Cuba located in the province of Pinar del Rio in the vicinity of San Juan y Martinez is grown the world's finest cigar leaf, noted for its remarkable aroma. This district is known as the Vuelta de Abajo and the outlying tobacco-producing territory is designated as Semi-vuelta. Other leading Cuban districts are the Partidos of Habana province and the Remedios of Santa Clara province. Porto Rico, the Bahia district of Brazil and portions of the Philippines also produce cigar tobacco of high merit though they do not equal the best Cuban. On the east coast of Sumatra and in portions of Java a very fine grade of cigar wrapper leaf is grown and several million pounds of this product are imported into this country each year for the manufacture of lower and medium-priced cigars. Because of the thinness of leaf, fineness of texture and veins and general uniformity of the grades this tobacco has a great wrapping capacity per pound. In the portion of southern Macedonia around the port of Cavalla and other nearby towns and in the Smyrna, Trebizond and Samsoun districts of Asia Minor are grown the finest cigarette tobaccos in the world. The socalled Turkish cigarettes are made from blends of these tobaccos. Egyptian cigarettes also are made from the Turkish types and tobacco is not grown in Egypt. The Macedonian, Smyrna and Samsoun tobaccos are imported into the United States in large quantities.

Culture of Tobacco.- The tobacco plant may be grown under a wide range of soil and

climatic conditions but, on the other hand, the characteristics of the leaf of commercial importance are greatly influenced by both soil and climate. These facts explain the existence of so many different commercial types of tobacco each suited to special purposes of manufacture. Cultural methods, also, affect the character of leaf obtained so that these methods are modified in the different districts according to the special requirements of the type grown, although certain general features are common to all sections. The tobacco seedlings must be grown in a specially prepared seed bed which may be either a hotbed or more commonly a cold frame. The soil must be mellow and friable and must be made rich. The time of planting ranges from January in the South through the month of April in Northern districts. The seed are sown at the rate of about a heaping teaspoonful to 25 square yards of seed bed and are covered only very lightly. The beds are covered with glass or with "tobacco cloth" to protect the young seedlings. When the seedlings have attained sufficient size, usually 6 to 10 weeks after the seed have been planted, they are transplanted to the field either by hand or machine. At the time of transplanting each plant must be watered unless the soil is wet. The plants are set in rows three to four feet apart while the distance allowed between the plants in the row varies from 14. to 16 inches for some of the cigar tobaccos up to three and one-half to four feet for the fire-cured type. The character and condition of the soil used for tobacco is of special importance. Good drainage is essential in all cases. Broadly speaking, cigar wrapper and binder leaf, Maryland tobacco and the flue-cured type are grown on light sandy and sandy loam soils, with sandy or sandy clay subsoils. In New England the Merrimac series of soils are widely used, while in Maryland the Norfolk and in the flue-cured district the Norfolk and Durham series are of special importance for tobacco. In the cigar filler district of Pennsylvania and in the Burley region of Kentucky fertile loams of limestone origin, particularly the Hagerstown loam, are chiefly used. Clay loams of the Miami series are typical tobacco soils of the Ohio cigar filler district. The dark fire-cured and air-cured export and manufacturing tobaccos are grown on rather heavy silt and clay loams usually reddish or brownish in color, with clay subsoils. Both the kind and the quantity of fertilizer applied to the tobacco crop are important. An excess of nitrogen injures the quality of the leaf, especially in the case of the flue-cured type. At least a part of the nitrogen should be derived from organic sources such as cotton-seed meal or dried blood. A liberal supply of potash in the form of sulphate or carbonate favors good burning qualities and reduces susceptibility to leaf spot diseases. Chlorine tends to hinder free combustion in the cured tobacco. Only quickly available forms of phosphoric acid should be used in order to ensure proper "ripening" of the leaf. In Connecticut heavy applications of fertilizers furnishing 100 to 150 pounds each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash per acre are commonly employed while in Southern districts 20 to 40 pounds of nitrogen and potash and 40 to 80 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre are ap

plied to the crop. Barn manure, also, is widely used in Northern districts. Liming is less essential for tobacco than for many other crops though possibly beneficial under some conditions. The soil is tilled for tobacco about the same as for corn or cotton. When the flower head begins to develop or somewhat later the plants are "topped" by breaking off the top of the stalk carrying the flower head and upper leaves, in order to force a better development of the leaves remaining on the plant. Cigar wrapper and binder tobaccos, White Burley and Maryland tobacco are topped high, leaving 16 to 20 leaves on the plant, while the heavy firecured type is topped to only 10 to 14 leaves and other types are topped to intermediate heights. The suckers or branches which develop in the axils of the leaf also must be broken off by hand. It is important to harvest the crop at the right stage of maturity. As the leaves ripen they take on a lighter green color and become more or less mottled with light-colored flecks. They also tend to crack when folded between the fingers. There are two methods in general use in harvesting the crop. In the first method the stalk is cut off near the ground and the inverted plants are attached to four-foot sticks either by means of cord or hooks properly spaced on the sticks, or by forcing the stick through the butts of the stalks by means of a removable metal spear head, or, finally, by splitting the stalks from the top to near the base and simply placing the plants astride the sticks. Each stick carries six to 10 plants and thus laden the sticks are arranged 6 to 12 inches apart on the tier poles of the barn. In the second method the leaves are plucked from the plant as they ripen, beginning at the bottom and taking two to five leaves at each picking. The field is thus gone over three to five times at intervals of a week or 10 days. The leaves are strung on cord by piercing the base of the midrib with a needle or the cord is merely looped around the basal ends of the leaves. The free ends of the cord are attached to either end of a four-foot stick, each stick and cord carrying 20 to 40 leaves. Curing, which must be carried out under proper conditions of temperature and moisture supply, is effected in specially constructed curing barns. Three distinctive methods are practised, known as aircuring, flue-curing and fire-curing. In all cases the process must be so regulated as to develop the desired properties in the tobacco leaf. In air-curing natural atmospheric conditions are largely depended upon and little or no artificial heat is employed. The barns are comparatively large and are provided with a maximum of ventilation. From three to 12 weeks are required to complete the process of air-curing. This method is applied to all cigar tobaccos, Maryland tobacco, White Burley and the dark manufacturing types. For flue-curing the barns are small in size, tightly constructed and are provided with a system of metal pipes by means of which artificial heat may be freely applied without allowing smoke to come in contact with the tobacco. Heat is applied throughout the curing and the temperature is carefully regulated, beginning with 90-100° F. and ending with 180° or even 220° F. The whole process is completed in three to five days. In fire-curing heat is supplied by making open fires on the

floor of the barn, thus allowing the smoke to come in contact with the tobacco, to which it imparts a characteristic odor. The barns should be tightly constructed but they should be provided with ventilators. In practice heat is not applied until the tobacco has been hanging in the barn for two or three days and the fires are kept going for only a few days at a time. Alternate periods of air-curing and firing are thus continued till the curing process is completed. After curing in the barn is completed the tobacco leaf is too brittle to handle without breaking except after a period of damp weather or when moisture is applied artificially. Under suitable moisture conditions the leaf becomes pliable so that the crop can be handled in preparation for market. After the leaves have been stripped from the stalks they are separated into various grades according to size, color and other important elements of quality. The number of grades made by the grower ranges from two to 10 or more, according to the type and value of the crop. After the grading is completed the leaves are tied into small bundles or "hands" by securely wrapping a folded leaf around the butt ends of the leaves in the bundle. There are several different methods of marketing the various types of leaf tobacco. In the case of cigar tobaccos and, to a limited extent, the dark air-cured and fire-cured types, the buyer inspects and bargains for the crop on the farm, the grower delivering the tobacco at the buyer's receiving warehouse. In the South and, to an increasing extent, in the Western districts the "loose leaf auction system" prevails. Under this system the various grades of the grower are placed in separate lots on the warehouse floor at market centres and sold at auction on a commission basis. In a third system which has been extensively employed, the tobacco, put up in standard containers, is sold from carefully drawn samples without the buyer having seen the contents of the package until delivery has been effected. The sale is made either by auction or by private bargaining. There are three standard containers in which leaf tobacco is delivered to the manufacturers, namely, the box or case, the bale and the hogshead. Cigar tobaccos are packed in cases and bales and Turkish tobacco, also, is put up in bales, while the bulk of other tobaccos is packed in hogsheads. In all cases, after having been packed, the tobacco goes through an important fermentative or aging process which develops the aroma and otherwise improves the quality. In some cases, however, the tobacco is put through a preliminary, more active fermentation in large heaps or bulks before it is packed for storage or transportation. The extent or degree of the fermentation is controlled largely by regulating the moisture contents of the tobacco. The tobacco plant throughout its period of growth is subject to injury by numerous insect pests and parasitic diseases. Among the more important insect enemies are the cutworm, wireworm, flea-beetle, hornworm and budworm. The cutworm and wireworm are best controlled by rotation of crops and the hornworm and budworm by the use of arsenical insecticides or by hand picking, while no effective remedy has been found for the flea-beetle. The tobacco-beetle (not the tobacco flea-beetle), a serious pest in all forms of cured leaf and

(Naples 1900); Fairholt, F. W., Tobacco: Its History and Associations' (London 1876); Garner, W. W., Bacon, C. W., Foubert, C. L., Research Studies on the Curing of Leaf Tobacco (United States Agricultural Department Bul. 79, 1914); Hayes, H. K., East, E. M., Beinhart, E. G., Tobacco Breeding in Connecticut' (Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Bul. 176, 1913); Killebrew, J. B., Report on the Culture and Curing of Tobacco in the United States' (Tenth United States Census, Vol. III, pp. 583-880, 1880); Kissling, R., Handbuch der Tabakkunde, des Tabakbaues und der Tabakfabrikation' (Berlin 1905); Loew, Oscar, Curing and Fermentation of Cigar Leaf Tobacco (United States Department of Agriculture Report 59, 1899); Mathewson, E. H., The Export and Manufacturing Tobaccos of the United States, with brief Reference to the Cigar Types' (United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau Plant Industry Bul. 244, 1912); Tatham, William, 'An Historical and Practical Essay on the Culture and Commerce of Tobacco' (London 1800); 'Stocks of Leaf Tobacco and the American Production, Import, Export, and Consumption of Tobacco and Tobacco Products' (United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census Bul. 136, Washington 1917).

WIGHTMAN W. GARNER, Physiologist in Charge of Tobacco Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.

TOBAGO, tō-bā'gō, British West Indies, an island of the Lesser Antilles, situated 20 miles northeast of Trinidad. It is about 24 miles long by seven miles wide, with an area of 114 square miles. It is hilly, rising at one point to a height of 2,000 feet. The soil is fertile and well cultivated. The chief products are sugar, rum, cocoanuts, rubber, cacao, cotton and tobacco. The capital and chief port is Scarborough, on the south coast, where steamships to Guira make stops. The island has been in British possession since 1814, and in 1889 it was united with the colony of Trinidad. Pop. about 21,000.

TOBASCO, a meat sauce made of peppers, originally manufactured in Louisiana by Col. John McIlhenny in 1868.

TOBIKHAR, tō-bik-här'. NEAN INDIANS.

See SHOSHO

TOBIT, Book of, one of the Old Testament books rejected as apocryphal by the Jews and Protestants, but received into the canon by the Roman Catholics. It contains an account of some remarkable events in the life of Tobit, a Jew carried captive to Nineveh, and his son, who is named Tobias. Ewald ascribes the book to a Palestinian Jew who wrote in Hebrew, and suggests as the date of its composition the middle of the 4th century before Christ. The earliest known text is in Greek. See BIBLE.

TOBOGGAN, a sled-like vehicle, often formed of a single piece of broad flat wood, of birch or basswood, curved up and backward at the front end, and used for sliding down slopes of snow. It is commonly from five to eight feet long, about 15 or 16 inches in width it formed of one piece, or wider if formed of two or more. The curved portion in front is usually fastened by thongs of hide or gut, and

the toboggan is strengthened by cross-pieces of hard wood strapped to the body at short distances. Toboggans originated with the Indians, who used them for hauling packs over the snow, and the name is still applied to a class of sleds drawn by dogs. But the toboggan of to-day is chiefly used in the sport of coasting down prepared slides, a popular pastime in Canada and other countries in high latitudes.

TOBOL, to-bōl', Asia, a river of Siberia, tributary to the Irtish, which rises in the southern Ural slopes, in Russian central Asia, flows northeast, and after a course of 750 miles empties into the Irtish opposite Tobolsk. It is navigable for more than half its length, but is covered with ice from November to May; its chief affluents are the Uj-Isset, Tura and Tawda. The Trans-Siberian Railway crosses the river at Kurgan.

TOBOLSK, tō-bõlsk', Asia, in Siberia, (1) capital of a government of the same name, on the Irtish where it joins the Tobol, about 350 miles northwest of Omsk. The principal buildings are the churches, governor's residence, bishop's palace, municipal offices, arsenal, barracks, bazaar and hospital; besides a prison used as a depot for Siberian exiles, assembled from all parts of the country, an episcopal seminary, theatre, gymnasium, etc. The manufactures include bricks, soap and tallow. The trade is unimportant. The town is partly fortified. Pop. 25,200. (2) The government of Tobolsk, in northwestern Siberia, contains an area of 535,739 square miles. The Arctic Ocean borders the northern coast; the principal rivers are the Obi and Irtish, which are navigable when not frozen over. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture and cattle-raising; fishing and hunting in the north. Pop. 2,885,700.

TOCANTINS, tō-kän-tēnz', Brazil, a river rising in the southern part of the state of Goyaz, and flowing north through Goyaz, Cayapo and Pará, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean through the Rio Pará, the southern estuary of the Amazon delta. On the northern boundary of Goyaz the river receives from the left the Araguayá, which is considerably larger than the main stream. From the source of the Araguaya in the Cayapo Mountains in Matto Grosso to the Atlantic Ocean is fully 2,200 miles, constituting one of the great rivers of the world. The Tocantins is 1,600 miles long, and though interrupted by falls and rapids, it is navigable in stretches aggregating 1,100 miles. Its estuary is 140 miles long, and receives numerous channels from the Amazon, together with which it separates the island of Marajo from the mainland. The country through which these great twin rivers flow is undeveloped, there being not a single important city on the banks, except Pará at the mouth.

TOCQUEVILLE, tok'vil (Fr. tŭk-vēl), Alexis Charles Henri Clérel de, French statesman and writer: b. Verneuil, 29 July 1805; d. Cannes, 16 April 1859. He was originally destined for the military profession, but exchanged it for that of law. In 1827 he was appointed an assistant magistrate at Versailles. In 1831 he was commissioned by the French government to proceed along with his friend, M. Gustave de Beaumont, to America, and to