of the Revolution' (1902); 'Young Americans in the British Isles'; A Lieutenant Under Washington' (1903); The Rider of the Black Horse (1904); The Red Chief (1905); 'Soldiers of the Wilderness' (1905); Winning His Degree) (1905); Four Boys in the Yellowstone' (1906); 'Marching Against the Iroquois' (1906); The Camp Fire of Mad Anthony' (1907); The Fruit of the Desert' (1907); Four Boys in the Land of Cotton' (1907); Mad Anthony's Young Scout' (1908); Four Boys on the Mississippi' (1908); Light Horse Harry's Legion' (1910); The Champion of the Regiment (1911); The Young Minute-Man of 1812' (1912); The Young Sharpshooter' (1913); Scouting With Daniel Boone' (1914); 'Places Young Americans Want to Know' (1915).

TOMMASEO, tōm'mă-zā'õ, Niccolo, Italian philologist and philosopher: b. Sebinico, Dalmatia, about 1802; d. Florence, Italy, 1874. He studied law in Padua but turned to literature and became known as a poet and critic. He was forced to leave Florence where he was colloborating with Viessieux in publishing his 'Antologia' which was suppressed by the government. He then went to Paris where he devoted his time to making the French and Italians better acquainted. In 1838 he went to Corsica where he made a collection of popular songs which were published in 1841. He returned to Venice where he was arrested in 1848 for his liberal opinions, but was freed by the Manin insurrection. Finally settling down in Turin he began (1854) to publish his great dictionary of the Italian language. He was distinguished for his vast and accurate knowledge as a philologist and for his constant efforts to educate the people. He was the author of a number of works in Italian.

TOMMY ATKINS, a generic nickname applied to the British soldier. It originated many years ago from certain printed forms-enlistment applications and military accounts, wherein, as a model, the name "Thomas Atkins" was inserted, like the mythical "John Doe" of American documents.

TOMOCHICHI, to'mo-che'chë, a chief of the Yamacraw branch of the Creck confederacy: b. in the town of Apalachicola, Ga., about 1642; d. at Savannah, Ga., 1739. He withdrew from the confederacy and with his followers went to live at Yamacraw Bluff on the Savannah River where he was instrumental in making a treaty of peace with Governor Oglethorpe and in securing the ceding of important territory by the Creeks. In 1734 he accompanied the governor on a visit to England.

TOMPKINS, Charles H., American soldier: b. Fort Monroe, Va., 12 Sept. 1830; d. Washington, D. C., 1895. He studied at West Point, but resigned without completing his course. In 1856, however, he enlisted in the dragoons, and was promoted first lieutenant in the Second United States Cavalry in 1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was assigned to service in the defense of the national capital and was engaged in one of the first reconnoitering expeditions. He was particularly distinguished for bravery in the Shenandoah campaign, and was brevetted brigadier-general in 1865. After the war he served as chief quarter

master in various divisions of the army, and in September 1894 was retired with the rank of colonel.

TOMPKINS, Daniel D., American statesman: b. Westchester County, N. Y., 21 June 1774; d. Staten Island, 11 June 1825. He was graduated at Columbia College in 1795, and afterward admitted to the bar, but soon entered political life. He was a member of the New York legislature and of the State Constitutional Convention in 1801 and in 1804 was elected to Congress, but was appointed to the State Supreme bench, and accepted that position instead of going to Washington. He was governor of New York in 1807-17 and in 181725 was Vice-President of the United States. He took an active part in the War of 1812, and was one of the strongest and most able opponents of slavery. It was largely through his influence that the bill abolishing slavery in New York was kept before the legislature, but he did not live to see its enactment.

TOMPSON, Benjamin, American poet: b. Braintree, Mass., 14 July 1642; d. Roxbury, Mass., 13 April 1714. He was graduated from Harvard and was long a teacher at Cambridge. He wrote New England's Crisis,' a long poem of King Philip's War.

TOM'S RIVER, N. J., village, county-seat of Ocean County, on the Pennsylvania and the Central of New Jersey railroads, about 50 miles east of Philadelphia, 36 miles southeast of Trenton and four miles from Barnegat Bay. It is one of the colonial villages of New Jersey, and in the Revolutionary days was a haven for privateers. The salt found here made it a place of importance in the settlement days. On 24 March 1782 the village was burned by the British. It is now a favorite summer resort. The chief industries are connected with the care of summer guests; but there are considerable shipments of cranberries, farm products, fish and oysters. It contains five churches, four schools and one bank. Permanent population about 2,000.

TOMSK, Asia, in western Siberia, (1) capital of the government of its own name, on the Tom (q.v.). It is the seat of a governor and of a bishop and of the educational district of West Siberia. It has 20 Russian churches, monastery, convent, synagogue, mosque, university with three faculties and 900 students, technological institute, theological seminary and various other schools for both sexes; also various scientific societies, Russian musical society, theatre, library, halting station for deported Russians, banks, harbor, etc. The industrial works comprise tanneries, distilleries, wagon factories, etc. There is a brisk transit trade with Siberia. It lies on a branch of the Siberian Railroad. Tomsk dates from 1604. Pop. about 117,000. (2) The government has an area of about 330,000 square miles and is in the south and southeast mountainous, and embraces the Altai system. The Obi and its tributaries are the chief streams. There are vast swamps in the flat districts. The climate is very cold and unhealthful. Storms and earthquakes occur often. Pop. about 4,000,000.

TON, a measure of weight and capacity, equivalent to 20 hundred-weight. As the historical "hundred-weight" of Great Britain and

the United States contains 112 pounds, the ton is reckoned as 2,240 pounds. This is known as a "long" ton. In some of the States legislation has made the ton consist of 2,000 pounds, being 20 hundred-weight of 100 pounds each. This is known as a "short" ton. United States laws make the ton equal to 2,240 pounds when not otherwise specified. A metric ton is 1,000 kilograms, or 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois. A ton of earth is the equivalent of 21 cubic feet. As a measure of capacity, of a vessel or a car, a ton is 40 cubic feet; this is an "actual" ton. The "register" ton contains 100 cubic feet. See TONNAGE.

Applied to liquid measure the word, in the form tun, was in common use with the old English wine dealers. A tun of beer contained 216 gallons, of 282 cubic inches each, while a ton of wine contained 252 gallons of 231 cubic inches each.

TONALITY, in music, the character and quality of tone. Good tonality demands: correctness of pitch, the production of sounds slightly out of tune being termed of doubtful tonality; correctness of intonation; and correctness of key relation, a passage wanting in definiteness of key or scale being termed of uncertain tonality. The word has been adopted by art critics and is applied to painting in considering the system of tones, or the colorscheme, of a picture.

TONAWANDA, tōn-a-won'da, N. Y., city in Erie County, on the Niagara River, Tonawanda Creek and Erie Canal, and on the New York, Central and Hudson River Railroad, opposite North Tonawanda and 10 miles north of Buffalo. Several railroads pass through and electric lines connect with Buffalo and Niagara Falls. It is in a fertile agricultural region, and on account of the good water power extensive manufacturing interests have been developed. The chief manufactures are steel, lumber and lumber products and paper boards. There are about 75 manufacturing establishments making products of the annual value of $2,500,000. The educational institutions are a high school, public and parish schools and a public library. The two banks have a combined capital of over $300,000. Pop. (1920) 10,068.

TONBRIDGE, English market town in Kent, 29 miles southeast of London, on the Medway River. It contains the remains of a medieval castle which stands near the entrance to the town, a parish church and a grammar school founded about 1550. It is noted for the manufacture of a peculiar kind of wooden ware known as "Tonbridge ware." Pop. about 17,500.

TONDO, ton-dô', Philippines, a district of the city of Manila, the most northern district on the bay shore. The streets are mostly narrow, the houses built of cane and nipa; it contains a large church and convent, the station of the Manila and Dagupan Railroad, and the city slaughter-house. The inhabitants are mostly fishermen and laborers engaged in the tobacco and cigar industries.

TONE, Theobald Wolfe, leader of the United Irishmen: b. Dublin, 20 June 1763; d. there, 19 Nov. 1798. He was graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1786, practised law for a time without much success and gradually

politics became his absorbing interest. He held republican opinions, and believed that Ireland ought to assert her rights as an independent nation; but the objects of the clubs of United Irishmen started at Belfast and Dublin in 1791 were limited to legislative reform. In 1792 he was appointed secretary of the general Catholic committee. The government came to know through a spy that he had given information in 1794 on the question of invasion to an emissary of the French government, but they permitted him to leave the country and go to America. He sailed from New York to France in 1795, and urged the French government to undertake an invasion of Ireland. He was adjutant-general in Hoche's abortive expedition against Ireland in 1796, and he afterward served under Hoche on land. He accompanied one of the small French expeditions sent to assist the Irish rebels in 1798, but was taken prisoner after a brief naval engagement near Lough Swilly. He was tried by court-martial at Dublin, convicted of treason, and ordered to be executed within 48 hours. He, however, cut his throat in prison. Consult the edition of his journals and political works, with a 'Life,' by his son (1826), of which a new edition, entitled The Autobiography of Wolfe Tone,' was issued by Barry O'Brien (1893).

TONE, sound considered with reference to its pitch, timbre, duration and volume. Nearly all tones in music are composite, consisting of several simple constituents having different rates of vibration and known as partial tones. They vibrate according to fixed laws, the pitch depending on the nature of the sonorous body and the mode of producing its vibration. The partial tone having the lowest pitch (and usually the loudest sound) is called the prime or fundamental tone, while the other partial tones are called accessories, harmonics or overtones. Tones differ in quality or timbre according to the number and relative force of their partial tones. A pure tone is a simple harmonic vibration. The seventh tone of a scale is called the characteristic tone; two tones coalescing are termed combinational. The interval of a major second is called a tone or whole tone, half of such interval being a semitone. When a piano key is sounded it produces a note, and the character of that note is a tone; the character of all the notes of an instrument gives the tone of the instrument. See NOTE; PITCH.

TONER, Joseph Meredith, American physician: b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 30 April 1825; d Washington, D. C., 1 Aug. 1896. He was graduated at the Jefferson Medical College in 1853 and established himself as a medical practitioner in Washington in 1855. He was the originator of the plan for the American Medical Association Library established in Washington in 1868 and made a part of the Smithsonian Institution, founded the Providence Hospital and Saint Ann's Infant Asylum in Washington and in 1871 the Toner lectures under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution. He devised the system of symbols for the indication of geographical localities which was adopted by the Post Office Department and made valuable researches into early American medical literature. His collection of 26,000 medical books and 18,000 pamphlets he presented to Congress in 1882. His publications include

Maternal Instinct, or Love' (1864); Medical Register of the United States' (1874); Annals of Medical Progress and Medical Education in the United States' (1874); Medical Men of the Revolution' (1876), etc.

TONGA, tong'ga, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS, Polynesia, a group of islands under British protection, situated in the south Pacific Ocean, mainly between lat. 18° 30′ and 22° 30′ S., and between long. 173° and 176° W., southeast of the Fiji Islands and southwest of Samoa. They are sometimes classified as three groups, the Tonga-tabu, Haabai and Vavan. The group consists of about 200 islets with a total area of 390 square miles. The largest, Tongatabu, is 20 miles long. The islands are partly volcanic and mountainous, partly of low coral formation. They have been subject to considerable changes in modern times by volcanic action. The soil is fertile and the vegetation luxuriant. The chief exports are copra, fruits, mats and sponges. The annual imports and exports total each about $350,000, trade being mainly with Australia and New Zealand. The larger islands are visited every fortnight by vessels of the New Zealand Union Steamship Company. The inhabitants belong to the finest of the Polynesian types. They are peaceful, civilized and Christian, being mostly Wesleyan Methodists. Excellent schools and a college have been established by missionaries. immediate ruler is King George II and native council, whose capital is Nukualofa on Tongatabu. The islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643. In 1845 they were united under one king. In May 1900 they were declared under British protection. Pop. about 24,000, including 380 Europeans.

The

TONGAS, tong'gaz, a tribe of the Kaluschan stock of North American Indians, residing around Cape Fox and at the mouth of Portland Canal, southeastern Alaska. They number about 250.

TONGRES, tôngr, Belgium, a town in the province of Limburg, on the Geer, 12 miles north of Liege. The church of Notre Dame (1240) is the first dedicated to the Virgin in the north. The cloister belongs to the 10th century. The industrial works include tanneries, distilleries and hat manufactories. The population before the war was about 10,000.

TONGUE, the principal organ of the sense of taste and an essential part of the apparatus of speech in human beings. The name tongue is also given to various structures in invertebrates, as the proboscis of a lepidopter or the odontophore of a shellfish. In man the tongue is attached by its base or root to the hyoid bone and to the epiglottis. Its tip, sides, upper surface and part of its under surface are free. Its under surface is fixed to the lower jaw by the genio-hyoglossi muscles and from its sides the mucous membrane is reflected on the inner surface of the gums. In front of the under surface a fold of the mucous membrane is specially developed and is named the frenum linguæ. The upper surface is convex and bears a deep middle line, the raphé, which ends behind in a deep follicle or sac- the foramen cœcum. Two-thirds of the forward portion of the organ are rough and bear the characteristic structures known as papillæ, in

which the sense of taste resides. The posterior third is smooth and exhibits the openings of numerous mucous glands. The substance of the tongue consists of numerous intrinsic muscles, which are named superior and inferior longitudinal and transverse muscles. The mucous membrane consists of an upper layer or cutis supporting papillæ and covered with epithelium. This cutis supports the blood-vessels and nerves and into it the muscles of the tongue are inserted. The papillæ, which cause the characteristic roughness of the tongue, are of three kinds. The circumvallate papillæ number from eight to 10. They are of large size and are placed on the hinder part of the upper surface and extend from the raphé in two diverging lines. Each of these papillæ consists of a rounded central and flattened disc, situated in a cup-shaped depression or fossa. The exposed part of the papilla is itself covered with numerous smaller papillæ. The fungiform papillæ are more numerous than the circumvallate and are scattered irregularly over the upper surface of the tongue, but are most plentiful on its apex and sides. They are of large size, of rounded, projecting form and of a deep red color. The filiform or front papillæ are of very small size and are arranged in rows corresponding with the rows of the circum- . vallate papillæ. In structure the papillæ are like those of the skin (q.v.) and contain loops of capillary vessels as well as nervous filaments. The mode of termination of the nerves in the papillæ is hardly determined. Numerous follicles and mucous or lingual glands exist on the tongue, the functions of these latter being the secretion of mucus (q.v.). The epithelium (q.v.) of the tongue is of the flat or scaly kind, resembling that of the epidermis or outer skin, but the deeper cells of the epithelial layer do not contain any pigmentary or coloring matter. The muscular halves or substance of the tongue are divided in the median line by a fibrous septum. The arteries are derived chiefly from the lingual and facial trunks and the nervous supply is distributed in the form of three main nerves to each half of the organ. The gustatory branch of the fifth nerve supplies the papillæ in front and those of the sides. The lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve supplies the mucous membrane at the sides and base and also the circumvallate papillæ, while the hypoglossal nerve is distributed to the muscular substance of the organ.

The gustatory nerves and glossopharyngeal branches are the nerves which provide the tongue with common sensation and also with the sense of taste, the hypoglossal nerve being that which invests the muscles of the tongue with the necessary stimulus. The conditions which appear to be essential for the exercise of this sense are: (1) the solution of the matters to be tasted- that is, their presence in a form in which their particles may readily come in contact with the nerves of taste, there being thus a strong analogy between the sense of taste and that of touch, since the latter sense must be in a manner exercised before the taste of any substance can be perceived; (2) the presence of a specialized gustatory nerve, a necessary condition for the exercise of this sense. Occasionally it happens, however, that other stimuli than those produced by the actual