from the molds. Woodworkers' mallets are either square or round in form. The square mallets are about six inches in length and two by wood-workers range in weight from one-half inches in width. The round mallets are about five inches in length and three inches in diameter. The mallet-heads are usually made of hickory wood, and sometimes of lignum vitæ.

The chopping tools are the axes, the hatchets and the adzes. In each case they represent the combination of a striking tool and a cutting tool. In these tools the shape of the handle or helve and the manner in which it is attached to the blade is of the utmost importance in governing their effectiveness.

Axes and Hatchets are edged tools with handles used in chopping for rough cutting or splitting. They vary mainly as to the weight of the blade, to the shape or curvature of the handle and to the form of the cutting-edge. Axe blades range in weight from two to seven pounds. These blades are usually made by welding the hard tempered steel portion which forms the cutting-edge to the iron portion which contains the "eye" provided for the reception of the handle. The curved form of the handle is designed to counteract the influence of the force of gravity which tends to twist the blade downwards when the axe is used for chopping at various obliquities. The form of the cutting-edge, curved horizontally, and wedge-shaped transversely to the sides of the blade, is designed for the purpose of separating the groups of wood fibres successively, and for equalizing the pressure of the blow on each side of the blade. A hatchet is a light form of axe, with usually a nail-pulling groove back of the blade.

In the adze, the cutting edge stands transversely or at right angles to the handle, which is quite short. The entire outer face of the blade is made slightly curved, and its cuttingedge is formed by beveling from the inner face. It is usually employed for the forming of lengths of wood into curved shapes.

METAL-WORKING TOOLS.

The almost innumerable variety of metalworking tools and the great variety of purposes for which they are employed make their classification into a series of general groups practically impossible within a limited space. In a general work they may be conveniently divided into various classes according to the character of the work to which they are applied. Such a method of classification would group the main body of metal-working tools under foundry work, forge shop work and machine shop work, the last named including all the turning, gear-cutting and toolmaking tools and appliances. The greater number of these are treated under their special headings in the several volumes of this Encyclopedia, and as in the case of the wood-working appliances, the various kinds of machines employed in the metal-working industries will be found specifically treated under the title METAL-WORKING MACHINERY. The larger metal-working tools are known as machine-tools, including all those machines that operate cutting tools for shaping metal, as lathes, power-drills, boring-drills, shapers, milling machines and the like.

The elementary descriptions of the various forms of small tools such as the guiding tools, the holding tools, the rasping tools, the cutting tools, the drilling tools and the striking tools already given in connection with the woodworking tools will be found applicable to similar tools employed in metal working, subject, however, to the modifications demanded by the greater hardness of the material worked, and the greater accuracy of execution required in the finished products of some classes of metal work. In the main these modifications consist in the employment of finer and harder materials in the making of the tools, in the particular forms given to the cutting edges and in the methods by which the tools are applied in the execution of the work.

The guiding tools employed in metal work are quite similar to those already described, and comprise the various forms of rules, squares, straight-edges and calipers, all made of metal, and also the various forms of micrometer calipers with vernier attachments which are capable of measuring dimensions as small as 1-10,000th of an inch. These calipers are divided into two general classes the "yoke" calipers and the "beam" calipers. In the former, the outer end of the shank of the yoke contains a split-nut which is employed for making adjustments for wear. For this purpose, the nut is closed onto the screw by being advanced on the stem toward the yoke. The shell or thimble on which the graduations are marked is attached to the end of the screw and rotates with it, and moves along over the shank. A speeding arrangement for rapidly advancing the screw is provided in the form of a knurled-nut in the yoke, which is also capable of contracting a bushing over the measuring stem so as to lock it in any desired position. The measuring point and the opposing anvil are carefully ground so as to make their faces perfectly parallel with each other. These micrometers are usually provided with a screw having 40 threads to the inch, with the barrel graduated to 10ths and 40ths of an inch. By this arrangement one revolution of the screw advances the thimble one division on the barrel, equal to one-fortieth of an inch, and as the circumference of the thimble is divided into 25 equal parts, one-twenty-fifth of one revolution of the screw advances the measuring point one-twenty-fifth of one-fortieth, equal to one one-thousandth of an inch. By the aid of the vernier attachment applied to the barrel measurements as small as one ten-thousandth of an inch are readily obtained.

Gauges and Indicators. These tools are employed for indicating the sizes of wire, machine-screws, drills and plate thicknesses. Various systems of gauges are employed, in all of which the dimensions are purely arbitrary. The American or Brown and Sharp gauge was adopted to produce a gauge to overcome the irregularities in spacing of the Birmingham gauge. In this gauge the dimensions increase by regular geometrical progression, the largest dimension No. 0000 being equal to 0.46-inch and the next smaller dimension, No. 000, being obtained by multiplying 0.46 by the constant .890522, each smaller number being the product of the preceding number and the constant. Gauges for indicating the gauge of wire or plates are of two forms the angular and the

notch gauges. Other forms of gauges are the "centre" gauge which is used for gauging lathe and machine centres in turning and grinding work; the screw-thread gauge used for grinding threading tools; the "screw-pitch" gauge used for determining the pitch of screw threads; the "depth-gauge" used for measuring the depth of holes and recesses; the "scratch" gauge used for ruling lines parallel with the edge of a piece of work and several forms of "surface" gauges which are principally used in determining the parallelism of the surface of a piece of work with the machine table, housing or other plane of reference. They are also used in testing, erecting and in the settingup work on machine tools.

Test indicators are a class of tools or instruments used for determining small irregularities in the accuracy of cylindrical surfaces and small variations from the true rotation of such surfaces. They are also used in determining the inaccuracies of a plane surface and in measuring small amounts of end or lateral motion such as the end-motion of a spindle. They are of two types-those which merely indicate the existence of the irregularitics and those which give a reading or measurement showing the exact amount of the errors.

Some of the other small tools indispensable to the metal worker may be briefly summarized as follows:

The various forms of "hack-saws" used for severing purposes. They are made of hardened steel to cut metal and mounted in a light frame and may be operated either by hand or by some form of power. Their blades are usually made with 14 teeth to the inch for gencral work and with 25 teeth to the inch for cutting tubing and thin metal.

The "monkey-wrench" and other forms of wrenches used for screwing and unscrewing the nuts of screw-bolts, etc.

The various forms of "drills" and especially the modern "twist-drill" which is universally used at the present time and which has completely supplanted the old flat forged drill which for many years held the first position as a tool for producing circular holes in metal.

The "reamers" and "broaches," which comprise a class of fluted tools used for finishing and truing cored or drilled holes. They are solid when used in a socket or with a wrench and shell or hollow when bored out to fit a mandrel.

The "screw-threads," "taps" and "dies," which, according to their use, may be divided into two classes those used for fastenings and those used for communicating motion. There are three forms of screw threads used for fastenings the "V" thread in which the sides make an angle of 60 degrees with each other and in which the top and the root are sharp; the "United States standard" thread which is similar to the "V" thread with the exception that the top is cut off and the bottom filled in; and the "Whitworth" or "English standard" thread in which the top is rounded off and the root filleted in and in which the sides form an angle of 55 degrees with each other. There are also three forms of screw-threads employed for communicating motion- the "square" thread, the "trapezoidal thread and "Powell's" thread.

The top is used for producing internal threads and the die is employed for cutting external threads. They are of two kinds - those operated by hand and those operated by powerdriven machines. Hand taps are made in sets each of which comprise three taps - the "tapertap," the "plug-tap" and the "bottoming tap." The taper-tap is parallel on the point for a distance equal to one-fourth the diameter of the tap and this point is made the diameter of the roots of the teeth and corresponds to the correct size of the hole to be tapped so as to produce a full thread. In the plug-tap the first three teeth are tapered off and in the bottomingtap the teeth extend full to the point. The taper-tap is used for starting a thread, the plugtap for extending it nearly to the bottom and the bottoming-tap for finishing the full thread to the very bottom of the hole.

The dies may be divided into two general classes those which have to be passed over the work several times in order to produce a finished thread and those by which a finished thread is produced at a single cutting. In the former, the cutting-dies are held in a stock and are capable of being separated so as to permit of their being passed over the work and then closed, by means of a set screw, an amount sufficient to enable them to cut a full thread. In the latter, when they are not of the screwplate type, the "chasers" or "cutters" are held radially in a cast-iron "collet" surrounded by a wrought-iron ring. These dies are capable of being adjusted to compensate for wear. bevelled outer ends of the chasers fit into corresponding bevelled grooves in the wroughtiron ring so that when the ring is forced down the chasers are moved toward the centre. A great variety of self-opening and adjustable dies are also used for machine threading.

MASONRY WORK TOOLS.

The

stone

The masonry work tools may be conveniently divided into two general classesmasons' tools and bricklayers' tools. Those employed by either of the two classes of workmen are neither numerous nor intricate in design. The principal tools of the stonemason are the saw, the mallet, the scrabbling hammer and the various forms of chisels designated as the "inch-tool," the "boaster" and the "broadtool," which are distinguished by their size, the first being one inch, the second two inches and the third three and one-half inches in width. In the work of stone cutting, the preliminary operations are performed by a small chisel called the "point" and the finishing work executed by the use of the others in turn according to their size. The principal tools of the bricklayer are the various forms of trowels, the plumb levels and the bricklayers' hammers. For further information relative to the various forms of stone-cutting saws, see SAWS AND SAWING; STONE-CUTTING AND DRESSING; and also the articles under the titles FILES AND FILE MAKING; METAL-WORKING MACHINERY; and WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY in this Encyclopedia.

TOOMBS, Robert, American lawyer and statesman: b. Wilkes County, Ga., 2 July 1810; d. Washington, Ga., 15 Dec. 1885. He was the son of a Georgia planter, attended for one year Franklin College (now the University of

Georgia) and was graduated at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., in 1828. In 1829 he studied law at the University of Virginia and in 1830, being under age, was admitted to the bar by special act of the legislature. Within 10 years he became one of the foremost lawyers of Georgia. In 1836, when the Creek War broke out in Alabama, he raised a company of volunteers and served as captain under Gen. Winfield Scott. In 1837-40 and 1842-43 Toombs was a member of the legislature and during this time became a leader of the State Rights Whigs of Georgia. From 1844 to 1852 he served as representative in Congress and was one of its best orators and debaters. In 1850 he was a prominent supporter of the compromise measures in the House. In 1852 with other Southern Whigs he refused to support Scott for President. After 1852, like Stephens, he acted with the Democrats. From 1853 to 1861 he was in the United States Senate. In 1854 he favored the Kansas-Nebraska Bill as carrying out the principles of the compromise of 1850. Immediately before the elections of 1860 Toombs lectured in the North on slavery. After the election of Lincoln he advised secession of the Southern States and made secession speeches in Georgia in December 1860 and in the United States Senate in January 1861, maintaining that in secession lay the only hope of security for the South. Georgia seceded 19 Jan. 1861 and Toombs withdrew from the Senate four days later. In March he was formally expelled. He was chosen to the Confederate Provisional Congress that met in Montgomery 4 Feb. 1861 and by a considerable minority was considered as a candidate for President. On 21 February he was made Secretary of State by President Davis. He opposed the firing on Sumter that began the contest of arms. Resigning September 1861 to become a brigadier-general in the Confederate army, he fought with distinction in the second battle of Manassas (Bull Run) and at Sharpsburg (Antietam). He resigned his commission in 1863 and in 1864 was made commander of the Georgia militia. He disapproved the policy of the Richmond administration and personally disliked Davis. With Vice-President Stephens and Governor Brown he headed the Peace Movement in Georgia in 1864, thereby doing much to weaken the cause of the Confederacy. In 1865, to escape arrest, Toombs went abroad, visiting Cuba, France and England. Returning in 1867, on the restoration of the privilege of habeas corpus, he soon amassed a fortune of $500,000 in the practice of law. In 1872 he was a member of the Georgia Democratic Convention and supported Horace Greeley for the Presidency. In 1874 the Georgia legislature passed a law providing that railroads should be taxed like other property. The railroads resisted, and Toombs, taking the case of the State, won the suit in the courts and collected all back taxes. For 10 years he continued the struggle to force the railroads to pay taxes and give proper service to the public and in 1877 secured the passage of a law providing for a board of railroad commissioners. Other Southern States have since passed laws modeled after the Georgia law.

By his enemies Toombs was considered extreme and intolerant-a "fire-eater." His friends thought him a statesman of the first

order and were disappointed that he made no higher mark. His hasty temper hindered his career in politics. In the army he was an able general, but not a disciplined subordinate. He belonged to the school of Jefferson in politics, believing in strict construction, State sovereignty and strong local government, with much liberty for the individual. His political theories were meant for times of peace, but could not stand the strain of war; consequently he was at variance with the Confederate administration from the beginning. As long as he lived Toombs never ceased to denounce the Reconstruction measures of Congress. His experiences from 1865 to the end of Reconstruction caused him so to dislike the United States government that he refused to ask for a pardon or to take the oath of allegiance and he never again had the privileges of citizenship. Consult Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker, Soldier, Sage) (1892); Trent, Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime' (1897). W. L. FLEMING, Vanderbilt University.

TOON, or TOONA, a tree (Cedrela toona) of the family Meliacea. It is a native of India and Australia, being found at altitudes of 4,000 feet on the Himalaya Mountains as well as near tide-level. In the former country it is one of the largest trees; in the latter, it often exceeds 150 feet in height and 18 feet in circumference. Hooker mentions a specimen in India 10 feet in diameter at five feet from the ground. The tree is cultivated for its timber, bark and flowers. The wood is soft, opengrained, easily seasoned and worked, little liable to warp and easily polished. The heartwood is reddish and resembles mahogany and veneers taken from the roots or where branches join the trunk are said to be remarkably handsome. The chief uses of the wood are in house-building, furniture-making, carving, etc. Under the names bastard cedar, bastard white cedar and Moulmein cedar the wood is an important export to English markets. The bark is very astringent and is used for making leather which usually is purplish from a dye also present. The flowers yield a reddish or yellowish dye which is in common use in India. A close relative of this tree, C. sinensis, is grown in the United States in streets and upon lawns. It resembles the ailanthus in hardiness and its graceful, feathery foliage, but is superior in regularity, denseness of growth and in the absence of disagreeable odor during the blossoming period. Several other species are cultivated in California and the Gulf States, but are not hardy in the colder parts of the country. See MAHOGANY.

TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON, a large fruit-pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) of Samoa, formerly called "dodlet" under the erroneous impression that it was a surviving relative of the dodo. It is about 14 inches long, body rounded, beak orange, with the lower mandible deeply cleft into three distinct teeth near the tip. Head, neck, breast and abdomen glossy greenish black, rest of back, wings, tail and under coverts deep chestnut. It is now

rare.

TOOTH-ORNAMENT, a decoration pecuculiar to medieval architecture, consisted of four-leafed flowers, the centres of which pro

ject in a point. These are used in series, either in a continuous row or at slight intervals, and are generally inserted in a hollow molding. They are used in great profusion in the Early English architecture, forming one of its characteristic features, and in some of the richer suits of molding the flowers are very thick and the series is repeated several times.

TOOTH-SHELL. See DENTALIUM.

TOOTHACHE, a pain in a tooth or adjacent jaw, arising from various causes. The most common cause is decay of some portion of the tooth, admitting air to the nerve, which causes sharp pangs. If there is a considerable opening it is colloquially called "jumping toothache." The pain may be stopped by application of oil of cloves on cotton and closing the passage that admits air; if oil of cloves is not to be had diluted chloroform on cotton is a good substitute; creosote is also used, especially in a gum styled toothache gum. But the pain and decay will usually continue unless the services of a dentist are sought. Decay in the root of a tooth often generates gas, which induces a pressure on the nerve, and consequent toothache. The remedy is to bore a small hole into the tooth and release the gas. If this is not done the gas forces itself through the gums, often with severe pain, resulting in a gum-boil. This is not a true boil, but a hole worked through the flesh by the pressure of the gas. When this finds a vent there is some relief, but a permanent cure involves treating the tooth by a dentist. Neuralgic toothache is a purely nervous variety, and may occur either in sound or carious teeth. It comes and goes suddenly in paroxysms, and is accompanied by little or no swelling. As a preventive against toothache the teeth should be kept scrupulously clean, and when they show symptoms of decay the services of a skilful dentist should be secured. The decay of a tooth is arrested by stopping or filling up the cavity.

TOOTHACHE TREE. See ARALIA. TOOTHED HERRING. See MOONEYE. TOOTHPICK, a small pick for removing substances lodged in the teeth. The ordinary toothpick is of wood about the size of a friction match, but longer and slenderer and pointed at one end or both. The use of wooden toothpicks has become very common in the United States and many millions of the tiny wooden slivers are manufactured there every year. The seat of this industry is in Maine, near the forests of white birch, which wood is chiefly employed in their making. The felling of "toothpick trees" is not a separate business but one incidental to the Maine lumbermen. After a tree has been felled the branches are lopped off and only the trunk is sent to the mills. There the bark is skinned and the naked trunk is cut by machinery into thin sheets of wood of the thickness of toothpicks and as wide as a toothpick's length. These sheets, known as "veneers, are run through another machine which in one operation cuts them into toothpicks ready for shipment. Of the better grade of toothpicks large importations are made every year from Japan and from Portugal. The Portuguese toothpicks are made of orangewood and are smaller but tougher, better shaped and more finely pointed than the domestic picks.

The Japanese make their toothpicks from fine reeds, which they shave down to the thinness of paper, retaining the reed's strength and pliability. Metal toothpicks, as of gold, which were formerly common, are now little in demand since their use endangers the enamel of the teeth. Quill toothpicks, cut from the shaft of a hen's feather, are still considerably used. TOOTHWORT. See DEentaria.

TOOWOOMBA, too-woom'ba, Australia, a town of Queensland, in the southeastern part of the state, 100 miles by rail west of Brisbane, on an elevation known as the Great Dividing Range. It has a number of churches, two colleges and other educational institutions, and a fine new municipal building. There are flour-mills, saw-mills and a brewery, and in the neighborhood are vineyards. Pop. about 11,000.

TOP-MINNOWS, a group of small, robust minnows, represented by Gambusia patruelis of the brackish waters along the Atlantic Coast, which are distinguished by their habit of swimming and feeding near the surface. See MINNOW.

TOP-SHELLS, the Turbinidæ, a family of gasteropod mollusks, mostly tropical and oriental, in which the shell is usually turbinate or top-shaped, but may be pyramidal. It is generally nacreous internally. The operculum is horny, and may exhibit a spiral form. In the genus Turbo the shell is top-shaped with a rounded base. The whorls are convex, and the aperture is large, the operculum being calcareThe genus Trochus also belongs to the top-shells. In the latter genus the shell is pyramidal and the base flattened, the operculum being horny. The common top is the T. zizyphnus. Others are the T. versicolor, the T. imperialis and the T. niloticus. After having been ground and polished to exhibit the nacreous inner layers, they are extensively sold

ous.

as ornaments.

TOPAZ, a mineral having the composition of an aluminum fluo-silicate. It is not the topaz of Pliny and other early writers which was chrysolite (q.v.), the names having been interchanged. It generally crystallizes in orthorhombic prisms, colorless, white, yellow, or occasionally pale green or blue. Transparent topaz, in any of its tints, is a beautiful gem. The colorless variety much resembles diamond, and is sometimes sold for it, though its lower hardness (8) affords an easy test. What has been called the largest diamond in the world, among the Crown jewels of Portugal, is probably a colorless or "white" topaz. The yellow variety is most familiar, and is called "Brazilian topaz," in distinction from "Oriental topaz" (yellow sapphire) and "false," "Scotch" or "Spanish topaz" (yellow quartz). The "Oriental topaz” is much rarer, harder (9) and denser (about 4); while the "Spanish topaz” is cheaper, less hard (7) and lighter (2.65), the density of topaz being 3.4 to 3.6. It is also distinguished by its eminent basal cleavage. The favorite shade is wine-yellow or sherrycolor. Both yellow and blue topaz fade and become white by weathering or exposure to light, and some yellow varieties can be changed to a pale pink by heating, yielding the so-called "burnt topaz" or "Brazilian ruby," resembling the pale, or Balas, variety of ruby spinel (q.v.).

Topaz occurs usually in metamorphic rocks, like gneiss, but also somewhat in igneous rocks; it is frequently, though not always, associated with tin-ore. The principal localities are in Ceylon, Siberia, Japan, Brazil and Mexico. In the United States it occurs in large masses at Stoneham, Me., and Trumbull, Conn.; in crystals in Colorado and Utah. Fine topaz crystals, colorless and pale blue, have recently been found in San Diego County, Cal.

TOPAZOLITE, a variety of andradite garnet having a light yellow or pale grayish green color. The most beautiful specimens are found in the Ala Valley, Piedmont, Italy. They also occur in California.

TOPE, a Buddhist monument intended for the preservation of relics. The oldest monuments of this kind are spherical or elliptical cupolas, resting on a circular or rectilinear base, with an umbrella-shaped roof, and sometimes with a series of roofs of this form which develop into a spire, pyramid or other architectural ornament. In the interior is a cell or chamber for containing the box with relics; but in some cases no relics have been found, and it is supposed they have been buried underground. The Sanskrit name is stupa, mound, from which is derived thupa and tope, meaning top. The older topes are masonry mounds, the cupola top and ornamental roofs and spire forms being later developments for ornamentation. Some of them are of great architectural beauty, rising tier above tier, with a series of graceful "parasol" roofs, the limit of height being about 300 feet. But the typical construction is that of The Great Tope at Sanchi, in central India. This is a hat-shaped mound or dome 42 feet high and 106 feet at the widest point. The flat space on top was for the chhatra or umbrella-like apex, this being the royal emblem. This was like a substantial parasol, as if to guard the relics from the weather. The Great Tope is surrounded with a magnificently carved stone railing, leaving an elaborate ornamental entrance or gateway, over 30 feet high. The chamber or cell in which the relics were kept was generally built with an outer construction of masonry; often enclosing a bronze box, which again enclosed a silver cylinder or case and within this perhaps a casket of gold containing the relics which it was desired to preserve. The number of stones in the topes often indicate Buddhistic symbolism—three, seven and 13 being the numbers rich in meaning. Topes are common in the Orient and there are groups of conspicuous ones at Amravati, Sarnatti and Telelabad Bengal, at Satdhara and Sonari in central India, at Abayagiri, Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya in Ceylon, etc. Relics of kings and great men were thus cared for, much as we build statues and monuments to-day. See DAGOBA; PAGODA.

in

TOPEKA, Kan., city and county-seat of Shawnee County, capital of the State and the third largest city in the State, on both banks of the Kansas River, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Missouri Pacific, 67 miles west of Kansas City. The city is well laid out with broad streets crossing at right angles and beautifully shaded. Topeka was settled by people from the "Free State"

in 1854; an anti-slave constitution was adopted here in 1856 known as the "Topeka Constitution" and the Topeka government was established by national authority. It was incorporated as a city in 1857 and selected as the State capital in 1861. The principal industries are the railroad shops of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railway, printing plants, six flouring mills having a capacity of 5,000 barrels per day, creameries, packing-houses, foundries, machine shops, boiler works, preserving works, silo factories, engine works and planing mills. According to the United States census of manufactures of 1914 Topeka had 159 manufacturing establishments with a combined capital of $14,186,000, employing 5,721 persons, paying $3,691,000 in wages and manufacturing a product valued at $20,000,000. Topeka has 10 banks, three of which are national banks and three building and loan associations with assets of $9,000,000. Topeka is an important jobbing centre, there being four wholesale groceries, six wholesale commission houses, wholesale hardware, paper, drugs, etc. It is one of the chief railroad centres between the Missouri River and the Pacific Coast. The State capitol, a handsome stone edifice, is the most important building of the city. The State Memorial building, erected to the memory of the veterans of the Civil War at a cost of $550,000, is the most handsome structure in the city. The government building and the court house are also creditable buildings. Topeka has a municipally owned city building with auditorium annex with seating capacity for 5,000 people. Just west of the city, two miles, is the State Hospital for the Insane; the State Reform School is located just north of the city about three miles. The Colored Industrial Institute is a coeducational institution for colored boys and girls located just east of the city. Orphans Home - two Crittenden Homes, one each for the unfortunate white and colored girls, the Provident Association Building, Ingleside Home for Old Ladies, a Methodist Home for the Aged are among the most notable of its charitable institutions. The Santa Fé Railroad maintains its own private hospital and the public hospitals are Saint Francis, Christ's Hospital and Stormont Hospital. The city has a free public library, a well-organized public school system, including a high school established in 1874; an excellent manual training school is also maintained. It is the seat of Washburn College, a coeducational institution for men and women, and the College of the Sisters of Bethany and three business colleges. Topeka has the commission form of government, having a mayor and four commissioners; a well-equipped fire department and an excellent police department. The city owns its own electric light and water plant. The cost of city government as reported by the United States government reports for the year 1915 shows $20.71 per capita as spent in Topeka for the maintenance of city government. The physical valuation of Topeka is about $56,000,000. The area of the city is 16 square miles. Topeka has over two miles of ornamental lighting system, has 240 acres of city-owned parks and play grounds. Pop. 52,250.

TOPELIUS, tō-pā'lē-oos, Zachris, Finnish author: b. Kuddnäs, near Nykarleby, 14 Jan.