1818; d. Helsingfors, 13 March 1898. He was graduated at the University of Helsingfors in 1840, in 1841-60 edited the Helsingfors Fidningar, in which many of his earlier writings first were printed, and held at the university the chairs successively of Finnish history (1854-63), of the history of Finland and the northern regions (1863-76), and of general history (1876-78). After Runeberg (q.v.), he is the chief poet of Finland. His religious and patriotic lyrics are particularly valued. Among the collections of his verse are 'Flowers of the Heath (1845-54); 'New Leaves' (1870). He wrote also several dramas, such as 'After Fifty Years' (1851), and works of fiction, including 'A Surgeon's Stories' (1853-67), a cycle based on Finnish and Swedish history from the time of Gustavus II Adolphus, to that of Gustavus III. There are German translations of several of his writings and an English version of the 'Surgeon's Stories' has appeared in the United States (1883-88).

TÖPFFER, Rudolph, Swiss novelist: b. Geneva, 1799; d. there, 1846. In 1832 he became teacher of æsthetics at the Academy of Geneva and in 1839 his novel 'Le presbytère' attracted general attention to him and ensured his position in the world of letters. He was a voluminous writer and won renown for his 'Voyages en zigzag) (1848) which were continued with illustrations by himself in 1853. Among his best productions are his seven little novels in pictures which were published together in Geneva, 1846-47. Consult Wolterstoff, Hermann, 'Essai sur la vie et lis cvres de Rodolphe Töpffer' (Magdeburg 1894).

TOPHET, or TOPHETH, a locality described in Scripture as in the valley of Hinnom, near Jerusalem, where high places were erected, and which was the chief seat of the worship of Moloch, with its fiery human sacrifices and abominations. The good King Josiah suppressed that form of idolatry, and made Tophet a receptacle for the refuse of Jerusalem. Afterward it became a buryingground. It was shunned with horror by the Jews, and the word has come to be used by Christians as the synonym of a place of punishment after death. The origin of the word is doubtful. It is derived by some from Hebrew toph, a drum, in allusion to drums beaten to drown the cries of children burnt in the fire to Moloch, and this seems a probable interpretation.

Another derivation is from an Aramæan word signifying to spit or vomit, in allusion to the disgust excited by the place. Consult 2 Kings xxiii, 10; Jer. vii, 31-32; Isa. xxx, 33.

TOPIC, the subject of a discourse, whether written or spoken; the matter treated of in conversation, argument, oration, literary composition, etc. In rhetoric and logic topic was restricted to the narrower sense of a common ground of argument, a general maxim or dictum from which other arguments may be started: one of the various general forms of argument employed in probable reasoning, as distinct from demonstrative reasoning. medicine the word is used to denote any remedy locally applied; it is, however, more frequently used in the plural, topics, denoting the class of such remedies, than applied to any one specific.

In

TOPLADY, Augustus Montague, English theologian and hymn writer: b. Farnham, Surrey, 4 Nov. 1740; d. London, 11 Aug. 1778. He was educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1768 was presented to the vicarage of Broadhembury, Devonshire. Though a voluminous writer and a strenuous defender of Calvinism against John WesleyToplady is now hardly known except as the author of the hymn Rock of Ages, one of the finest expressions of evangelical faith and fervor to be found in all hymnology.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING. See

SURVEYING.

TOPOLOBAMPO BAY, Mexico, a small bay of the Gulf of California on the west coast of the state of Sinaloa. It is noted on account of the attempt made in 1886 by a number of Socialists of the United States to form a cooperative community on its shores. A company was chartered, in which all the colonists were stockholders, and which was to own all the land, and conduct all the business of the community. Everything was to be done as far as possible on the socialistic plan as described in Bellamy's 'Looking Backward.' Several hundred colonists joined in the experiment, and a city was surveyed and laid out on an elaborate plan. The experiment, however, was a failure, largely owing to aridity of the land and the absence of available streams for irrigation. The place was abandoned in 1891.

TOPOPHONE, an instrument for determining the direction from which any sound proceeds. It is valuable for use at sea, during fog, or in the night, to determine the direction of a sounding bell, fog-horn, whistle, etc. The topophone was invented by A. M. Mayer, and consists of a centrally pivoted horizontal bar having at each end resonators, with their openings facing the same way, each with a connecting sound tube for the ears of the observer. In use the bar is turned until a position is found in which the sound is loudest and equally distinct in each ear. The location of the sound is at a right angle to the bar in the direction to which the resonators face.

TORAH, or THORAH. See PENTATEUCH. TORBANITE, a lustreless variety of cannel coal, especially rich in volatile matter formerly used in the manufacture of illuminating gas, paraffin and lubricating oils. It occurs at Torbane Hill, near Bathgate, Scotland, but the supply is exhausted. See BOGHEAD COAL

TORBERNITE, an ore of uranium consisting of a hydrous phosphate of uranium and copper, CuO.2UO3.PO38H2O, obtained in Utah and Black Hills of South Dakota.

TORBERT, tôr'bert, Alfred Thomas Archimedes, American soldier: b. Georgetown, Del., 1 July 1833; d. at sea off the coast of Florida, 29 Sept. 1880. He was graduated at West Point in 1855, was engaged on frontier duty in Texas, Florida, New Mexico and Utah in 1855-60, and at the outbreak of the Civil War was assigned to the duty of mustering in volunteers. He was commissioned colonel in 1861, and led his regiment in the Peninsula campaign of 1862; was assigned to the command of a brigade in that year; and participated in the second battle of Bull Run and in the battles of

South Mountain and Antietam. He was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862; commanded a brigade at Gettysburg in 1863; for gallantry there was brevetted major in the regular army; in April 1864 was transferred to the cavalry service and placed in command of the 1st division of the Army of the Potomac. He commanded the cavalry in many subsequent engagements, including those at Hanovertown, Milford, Winchester and Waynesboro. In 1864 he was brevetted major-general of volunteers, attaining the same rank in 1865 in the regular army. In 1866 he was mustered out of the volunteer service and resigned his regular army commission. He was United States Minister to the Central American States 1869-71, was transferred as consul-general to Havana, Cuba, and in 1873-78 was consul-general in Paris. He was lost in the foundering of the Vera Cruz off the coast of Florida.

TORCELLO, tŏr-chěl'lō, Italy, an island in the lagoon of Venice, six miles above the city. It is the see of a bishop and possesses an ancient Byzantine cathedral of Santa Maria of the 7th century, with mosaics of the 12th century, curious altar-benches, an antique crypt, octagonal baptistery from 1008 and a belfry; Santa Fosca is another handsome church with a fine interior (12th century). Pop. 130.

TORDENSKJOLD, Peter, Norwegian naval officer: b. Trondhjem, 1691; d. 1720. He endeared himself to the people by his exploits in the navy to which he was appointed a lieutenant in 1711, and in 1716 was given noble rank for his victories. When but 25 years of age he destroyed the Swedish fleet of 44 ships and compelled the raising of the siege of Fredrikshald by Charles XII. He was made viceadmiral (1719) for the destruction of the principal Swedish squadron.

TORGAU, tor'gow, Germany, a town in the province of Saxony, Prussia, on the Elbe, 32 miles northeast of Leipzig. Prior to 1889 it was a fortified town, and has considerable historical significance in connection with (1) the Alliance of Torgau, a confederacy formed in 1526 by Saxony, Hesse and other German states in which Protestantism united for the purpose of defense against aggression on the part of their antagonists; (2) the Articles of Torgau, a declaration by Luther and his supporters in 1530, which was the foundation of the Augsburg Confession; (3) the battle of Torgau, fought in the suburb of Luptitz, 3 Nov. 1760, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians under General von Daun; (4) the siege of Torgau by Tauentzien in 1814, the city holding out for three months and surrendering 10 Jan. 1814. The Renaissance Hartenfels Castle of the 15th century was a former electoral residence. In the town-hall is a museum of Saxon antiquities. There is here a modern fort for the protection of the railway system. The royal stud farm was long located in the vicinity. Pop. about 13,000.

TORMENTIL, an old provincial name for various species of Potentilla (q.v.), a plant supposed to yield relief from the torment of toothache.

TORNADO, from the Spanish tornada, "a turning about,"the local name given in various tropical and subtropical regions, notably Sene

gal, to violent whirlwinds or cyclones, with the usual accompaniment of electrical disturbances and downpouring rain. See CYCLONE; METEOROLOGY; WIND.

TORNADO ALARM, an apparatus which automatically gives an alarm when there is a sudden change of atmospheric pressure, such as precedes a tornado. It is a form of barometer in which the main mercury tube has a cylindrical bulb at the top and is bent in the form of a siphon. Near the lower portion of its shorter member is a secondary tube, the connection being made by means of a short tube connecting with the main tube by a very small opening. The fluid in both the larger tubes will remain normally of equal or nearly equal height in ordinary changes of the weather, but in case of sudden atmospheric changes the small opening in the connection between the tubes restricts the movement in the secondary tube as compared with that in the main tube. Such variation in the movement of the mercury in the two tubes when sufficient to indicate an approaching storm, is made to give an alarm by means of floats in the tubes connected with wires in an electric circuit, there being on one wire a fork and on the other a tongue, by which contacts are made, to ring an alarm when the points meet. This alarm should sound some two minutes before the first blasts of the tornado. Ordinary storms have no effect at all on the apparatus.

TORNEA ELF, tor'ně-â elf (sometimes written TOME), Sweden, a river at the north, which rises in Lake Tornea. Part of its course forms the boundary between Sweden and Finland, and then empties into the Gulf of Bothnia, after a course of 275 miles. The town of Tornea stands at its mouth and on the opposite side of the river the Swedish town of Haparanda.

TORONTO, Canada, a city and lakeport, the capital of the province of Ontario, situated on the circular Toronto Bay between the mouths of the Don and Humber rivers, on the northwest coast of Lake Ontario, 313 miles westsouthwest of Montreal and 60 miles in a direct line northwest of Buffalo, United States. It is the seat of the provincial government, of the higher law courts, of an important university and of the Department of Education of the province; it is also the cathedral city of a Roman Catholic and of an Anglican diocese. In commercial importance it is the second city in the Dominion, and, after Montreal, the chief 1ailway centre. The Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, and many branch lines connect it with the principal cities of Canada and of the northern United States, and it is the headquarters of the Canadian Northern and the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario railways. The fine harbor, five miles long and one and a half wide, is formed by a long, low, sandy island, protected by imposing breakwaters; this island is, in summer, a favorite bathing and boating resort. A great scheme of development, which includes the deepening and extension of the harbor, land reclamation, boulevard construction and the creation of industrial sites is in progress. The city rises gradually from the water's edge to a height of 220 feet; it extends from east to west for about 10 miles along the lake shore and from north to south from three

to seven miles, and covers an area of about 32 square miles, with streets crossing each other at right angles. An electric street railway system has about 144 miles of tracks. The architecture, especially of the numerous public buildings, is tasteful and imposing, and there are many fine shops and residences. Brick of a pleasing light color, or red, is the chief building material. Of the public buildings, the most striking group is that connected with the University of Toronto. The main building or University College, a fine Norman structure in gray stone, with a massive tower and richly sculptured doorway, was rebuilt after partial destruction by fire in 1890; the Library, the new Medical Building, the Biological Department, the School of Practical Science, with its handsome new engineering building in the Renaissance style, and a number of other large structures, unite with this to make up an imposing group, not wholly harmonious, but in a spacious setting of park land. Adjacent are the "NeoGreek" Parliament buildings, containing the government offices, and a handsome and welldecorated legislative hall. The magnificent city hall and courthouse is, next to the university, the most striking of Toronto's buildings. Others worthy of mention are Osgoode Hall, the seat of the provincial law courts; the Normal School buildings, offices of the Department of Education; Central Technical School; Trinity College, in connection with the Church of England, an ornate building, in the late Gothic style; the custom house, the post office, the exhibition buildings, where an important annual exhibition is held, and the lunatic asylum, in about 40 acres of ground. A new Union railway station to cost $5,000,000 is in course of construction. The churches most worthy of notice are the Roman Catholic and Anglican cathedrals, both in the pointed style; the latter is an excellent specimen of Early English. There are numerous theatres and many public halls, the chief being the Massey Music Hall, which will hold 4,000 or 5,000 people. Toronto has 1,329 acres of park, the chief being Queen's Park, adjoining the university, and the extensive High Park, at the west of the city. It is a great educational centre. The university (see following article) is one of the best equipped in America. Educational institutions connected with it are Trinity College (already mentioned); Victoria College (Methodist, arts and divinity); Knox College (Presbyterian, theological); Wycliffe College (Anglican theological); Saint Michael's College (Roman Catholic), and colleges for instruction in music, dentistry, pharmacy and veterinary science. Its agricultural college is situated not at Toronto but at Guelph, Ontario. McMaster University is an independent Baptist institution, teaching arts and divinity. Upper Canada College, in spacious grounds, is a residential school for boys, as is also Saint Andrew's College, the site of which was acquired in 1917 for a military hospital. Havergal College is a similar type of school for girls, and besides it are Bishop Strachan's School, Saint Margaret's College, etc. The Toronto Conservatory of Music has a very large number of pupils. The Observatory, at which the weather reports for the Dominion are made up, is in the university grounds. Toronto has suffered from destruc

tive conflagrations, notably in 1849, in 1890 and in April 1904, when more than 100 buildings in the wholesale business section were burned down, some 5,000 persons were thrown out of work, and about $11,000,000 worth of property was destroyed. The industries of Toronto include a great agricultural implement factory, iron foundries, shipbuilding, rolling stock, distilling and brewing, pork-packing, the manufacture of soap, tanning, aeroplanes, etc. The city possesses a well-equipped system of public libraries, with a fine reference library centrally located, in which the John Ross Robertson historical and ornithological collections are housed. Shipping on the lakes is laid up in winter, but during the navigable season several lines of steamers connect with the principal ports on the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence. The lake commerce in lumber, grain, coal, cattle and fruit is large. Toronto's bank clearings in 1917 were $3,004,785,565; customs revenue, $35,732,400. The city has over 1,700 manufacturing establishments, employing 80,000 hands.

The name Toronto is derived from the Huron word, signifying "place of meeting." In 1749, when the French were establishing a chain of forts or posts through all the West and down the Mississippi Valley, Fort Rouillé was founded, on a site even then often called Fort Toronto. In 1756 this fort, on the west side of the present city, was destroyed to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. In 1793 Governor Simcoe finding Niagara or Newark, which lay almost under the guns of an American fort, too close to the frontier for the seat of government, removed the capital to the other side of Lake Ontario and established his headquarters in a tent, on a site in the eastern part of the present city. In 1813 Toronto, called York by Governor Simcoe, was captured and partially burned and looted, twice in the same year, by the American army and navy. In the first capture the American General Pike, the discoverer of Pike's Peak, together with many soldiers, was killed by an explosion. In 1834 Toronto was incorporated as a city with its present name. In 1837 it was the chief scene of a brief and ineffectual rebellion under William Lyon Mackenzie (q.v.). At that time and often since Toronto has shown itself to be fervently British in sentiment. Its later history has been purely civic, without other interest than that attaching to prosperous growth. A. pleasant society and an attractive situation make it a favorite place of residence. Population has increased rapidly. In 1793, when Governor Simcoe landed, there were only a few families. In 1834 the population was less than 10,000. In 1861 it had increased to 44,821, in 1871 to 56,092 and in 1881 to 86,415. In 1891, including some annexed suburbs it amounted to 181,220, and in 1911 amounted to 376,240 and in 1921 to 521,893.

Consult Scadding, "Toronto of Old'; Scadding and Dent, Toronto, Past and Present'; Adam, Toronto, Old and New); and The Toronto Annual.›

GEORGE M. WRONG,

Professor of History, University of Toronto.

TORONTO, Ohio, village in Jefferson County, on the Ohio River, and on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 10 miles above Steubenville, the county-seat. It is in a region in which