TORTOISE. See BOX-TURTLE; LANDTORTOISE; TERRAPIN; TURTLES.

a

TORTOISE PLANT, loft climber (Testudinaria elephantipes) of southern Africa, resembling a yam, and belonging to the same family. It has slender twining stems, alternate, netted-veined leaves, smal! dioecious bell-shaped yellowish flowers in axillary racemes, and triple-winged capsules. It is, however, characterized by its globular rootstock, sometimes four feet in diameter, and growing above the ground. This enormous tuberous structure is woody or succulent, and is covered with a soft corky bark, which, cracking by exposure, becomes tessellated with angular protuberant plates suggestive of those of the tortoise. When young it has also suggested the name of elephant's-foot, and its utilization as a food by the natives has given rise to the title Hottentot's-bread.

The

TORTOISE-SHELL, the material of the large epidermal scales of the hawksbill seaturtle (Chelone imbricata). Thirteen of these plates cover the carapace, and instead of being joined together by their edges so as to make apparently one piece, are thinned off at their posterior margins, and overlap each other like the tiles of a roof. They vary in size according to the part of the shield they occupy. larger are sometimes from a foot to 18 inches long by six inches broad; the thickness rarely exceeds the eighth of an inch. The beautiful mottled color and semi-transparent characters of this material are well known. A remarkable quality is possessed by tortoise-shell which very greatly increases its usefulness for the ornamental purposes to which it is generally applied, that is, the property of being easily softened by a heat equal to boiling water, and of retaining any form when cold which has been given to it when heated. Pieces can also be welded together by the pressure of hot irons properly applied. The chief use of tortoise-shell is in making combs for the hair; but it is also used for inlaying ornamental furniture and various other fancy objects. By the French cabinet-maker Boule (see BUHLWORK) it was used most effectively in combination with brass as a veneer for rich furniture, and all boule or "buhl" work consists of such a veneering combination. In India, China and Japan many articles are made of it, showing great skill and taste.

TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY, a butterfly of the genus Vanessa as the Camberwell beauty (q.v.), in reference to the reddishbrown, black and white coloration.

TORTOLA, tôr-to'la, one of the Virgin Islands, West Indies, lying northeast of the island of Saint John, from which it is separated by a narrow channel; area, 24 square miles. It is hilly and rugged, the highest elevation being 1,600 feet. Only a small part of the land is cultivated, cotton and sugar are raised, and sugar, molasses and rum exported. The island is one of the most important of the Virgin group and contains the chief town, Roadtown.

TORTOSA, tor-to'sä, Spain, a city in Catalonia, 45 miles southwest of Tarragona and 100 miles southwest of Barcelona, on the Ebro River. Its ports are El Fangar and Los Alfaques at the mouth of the river. It occupies

an acclivity rising from the left bank, and is fortified, part of the walls being of great antiquity. There are several small squares, and the streets are narrow and crooked, some of them very steep. The houses are built of solid masonry, there is a cathedral and other churches and a monastery. There are manufactures of soap, paper, hats, leather, porcelain, faience, and important fisheries. In the vicinity are fragments of Roman ruins, also marble and alabaster quarries. Pop. about 26,000.

TORTRICIDE, a family of moths. See LEAF-ROLLER; MOTH.

TORTUGAS, tôr-too'gaz.

TUGAS.

See DRY TOR

TORTURE, as a means of judicial punishment, descended to the countries of modern Europe from the Greeks and Romans since it appears not to have been practised by_the Hindus, the Hebrews or the Egyptians. Torture was judicialy inflicted either to extort confession, purge sin, or aggravate punishment. As practised by the Greeks, it was not applicable to a freedman, except in certain cases, but was commonly applied to slaves. Indeed the word of a slave could not be admitted as testimony, except under torture, and either party to a controversy could demand the torture of his opponent's slaves. The principal modes of torture with the Greeks were the wheel, the rack, the sharp comb, the burning tiles, the vault (into which the victim was bent double), and the injection of vinegar into the nostrils. From the Greeks the Romans got their system of torture and from the Roman laws it was engrafted in the judicial systems of all the modern countries of Europe. The Romans, like the Greeks, exempted freedmen from the horrors of torture, except in cases of treason. But under the emperors the torture of a freedman was not an infrequent occurrence. The Romans chiefly employed the rack, the scourge, hooks for tearing the flesh, and fire in its various uses. Roman contact with barbarian races gave the practice to the latter, but with one exception it made slow headway in replacing the older and more superstitious custom of the ordeal. That exception is in the case of the Visigoths who established a system of torture that remained uninterrupted from the time of their settlement in Spain to modern times, and which furnished a model upon which most of the other European systems were based. Legalized torture became common in France during the first part of the 13th century and in Germany a century later. English lawyers assert that it was never legalized in Great Britain, but certain it is that it was commonly practised, and, if not directly enjoined, was at least sanctioned by the laws of that realm. All Europe came under the system during the 15th century, in consequence of the systematization of the Inquisition (q.v.), and the growth of that institution in power and importance, and with the exceptions of Great Britain and Sweden, torture formed a recognized department of the jurisdiction of European nations until the end of the 18th century. During the time of the Inquisition torture was applied by the civil, not by the ecclesiastical, court, and the ecclesiastics present at the question were there simply as witnesses of the confession and not as agents, as popular fancy has pictured them. A confession ex

torted by torture was of no avail to the prosecution before an ecclesiastical tribunal, unless it was voluntarily confirmed three days afterward. From the 13th century on, the use of torture increased, until its extreme cruelty and the horror of its practice led to a revulsion of feeling and to its general abandonment in the latter half of the 18th century. In some countries, however, it continued to be officially recognized and sporadically employed until the early part of the 19th century. It was abolished in Saxony in 1783, in Russia in 1801, in Würtemberg and Bavaria 1806-07, in France in 1789 (although it was employed in 1814), in Hanover in 1819, and in Baden in 1831. It is believed, however, that it was practised in Russia even early in the 20th century. It never was sanctioned in the United States, though "witches" were burnt near Salem, and the burning of negroes for rape by lynch law still persists. Consult Lea, H. C., Superstition and Force' (1870); Pearsall, R. L., The Kiss of the Virgin, etc. (1838); Sassen, M. J., Disputatio de abusu et usu torturæ (1697); Parsons, Studies in Church History) (Vol. II, Art. "Inquisition," 1895). See INQUISITION; RACK. TORU DUTT, to'roo doot. See DUTT, TORU.

TORY, Henry Marshall, Canadian minister and educator: b. Guysboro, Nova Scotia, 1867. He was educated at the local academy and at McGill University where he was graduated in 1890 with high honors in mathematics and physics. He studied theology at Wesleyan University and entered the Methodist Church in 1889 but retired in 1892 to become lecturer in mathematics in McGill University and was professor there until 1908 when he was chosen president of the Provincial University of Alberta at Strathcona. He published 'A Manual of Laboratory Physics) (1902).

TORY, the name of a political party, used in Great Britain and other Anglo-Saxon countries, is said to have originally been applied to the Roman Catholic outlaws who lived in the bogs of Ireland during the reign of Charles II. The name became identified with the opponents of the bill excluding the Duke of York from the English succession (1679), and was thus intended to imply Roman Catholic sympathies on the part of the duke's adherents. It was transferred to the court party in English politics, their opponents being classed as Whigs. Since the clergy of the Church of England taught the doctrines of passive obedience and the divine right of kings, they also were known under the name of Tories. In modern English politics the successors of the Tory party are known as Conservatives, but the old term is not infrequently heard in Parliamentary debate. Political parties in British colonies at times followed closely the divisions and names in England, so that in Australia and New Zealand the conservative elements in the representative assemblies were known as Tories. In the American colonies the name was given to the adherents to the policy of the mother country, and during the Revolutionary War was applied to all persons suspected of British sympathies. Consult Bentinck, Lord Henry, Tory Democracy) (London 1918).

TOSCANELLI DAL POZO, Paolo, tos'ka-nél'lë dǎl pot'so, Italian geographer: b.

Florence, Italy, 1397; d. there, 1482. He believed that India could be reached by sailing to the westward and so advised Columbus in 1474. He also gave the king of Portugal similar views. It is thought that he strengthened the views of the great navigator to undertake the western voyage, although not alone in doing this. Consult Vignaud, Henry, Toscanelli and Columbus' (New York 1902).

TOSTI, Sir Francesco Paolo, frăn-chĕskö päōlō tos-tē, Italian composer: b. Ortona di Mare, 7 April 1847; d. 1916. He was a pupil and later teacher at the Conservatorio Reale, Naples, and in 1869 appeared as a concert singer at Rome. Shortly afterward he became vocal instructor at the court; removed to London in 1875 and in 1880 was appointed instructor to the royal family. He produced 'The Grand Duke' (opera, 1888); 'La prima donna' (opera, 1889) and many English and Italian songs. His 'Good-bye'; 'For Ever and For Ever; That Day,' etc., are widely popular. He was knighted in 1908.

TOSTIG (TOSTI, TOSTINUS), WestSaxon warrior: d. 1066. In 1055 he was made earl of Northumbria, Northamptonshire, and Huntingdonshire, by Edward the Confessor. A stern ruler, he repressed feud and disorder by the exercise of a merciless justice (patriam purgando talium cruciatu vel nece), with no distinction of rank. In 1063 he joined his brother Harold in the invasion of Wales, but in 1064, for treacherous murder, was outlawed, while Morcar was chosen to the earldom (1065). He retired into exile in Flanders, in 1066 committed various depredations on the Isle of Wight, Lindesey and the east coast and subsequently joined Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, in an invasion of England. They landed in Yorkshire, but were entirely overthrown by Harold and his household troops at Stamford Bridge. Tostig figures in Tennyson's drama of 'Harold' (1877). Consult Green, The Conquest of England' (1884); Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest' (Oxford 1887).

TOTARA, or TOTARRA, a tree (Podocarpus totara) of New Zealand, of the yew family, excelled only by the kauri for general utility, and most abundant in the central part of North Island. It is from 60 to 80 feet in height and has a fibrous brown bark which is deeply furrowed and was used by the natives for roofing their huts. Its leaves are linear and of a greenish-brown color. The wood is reddish-brown, clear and straight in the grain and does not warp or twist. It is largely used for furniture, cabinet-work and house-building, but is particularly valuable for bridges, wharves and marine piling, as it is durable under the ground or water and resists the attacks of teredos for a long time. The aborigines made canoes from the trunks of these trees. PODOCARPUS.

See

TOTEM, a word which appears to have been applied originally to the animal or other thing held sacred by certain American Indians as the sign or symbol of the tribe or of an individual Indian. The superstition is not confined to American Indians and has its counterpart in the symbols of civilized nations. The American eagle, the lion of Great Britain, the thistle of Scotland, the rose of England, etc., and the arms of noble families are illustrations.

The practice can be traced, indeed, throughout all history, among the greatest empires and the most savage tribes.

The totem superstition varies in its features in different countries. The members of the Emu clan of an Australian tribe believe themselves to be descended from the emu and are regarded as forming a kind of blood-group in virtue of their common descent. No member is permitted to marry within the clan, and all the members are bound to support one another in times of necessity. No Emu clansman will knowingly kill or eat an emu. Among some savage peoples the dead totem is elaborately mourned and carefully buried. Besides clan totems there are sex totems and individual totems. The totem having an important bearing on a person's relations to his fellows, it is shown conspicuously, being often tattooed on the skin or otherwise. The importance of totemism in relation to the social and religious institutions of savage peoples was first pointed out by J. F. M'Lennan in 1868 and much fresh light has been shed on the subject by subsequent investigators but no satisfactory explanation of this curious system has yet been advanced. The American Indians were given to totemism and not only set up various animal figures as emblematic of their tribes but individuals were frequently named after animals. The exact meaning and character of their totem practices is little understood. There were rules as to all marriages of those in kindred totems; some took their totems from their fathers, some from their mothers and some from their tribe. Totemism exists also among many African peoples, and numerous instances of it are to be met with in Asia and Polynesia. (See AFRICA; AUSTRALIA; INDIANS, AMERICAN). Consult Lang, A., 'The Secret of the Totem) (1905); Frazer, "Totemism (1887); Durkheim, E., Elementary Forms of the Religious Life' (Eng. trans., London 1915).

TOTEM POLĖ, a pole used among North American Indians to exhibit the totem figures. The totem pole is composed principally of three half human, half animal figures, seated above one another and holding erect a pole on the summit of which, for instance, is the totem. See TOTEM.

TOTONICAPAM, tō-to-nē-kä-päm'. Guatemala, the capital of the department of the same name, situated 60 miles northwest of the city of Guatemala. It manufactures cloth, pottery and wooden implements. It was half destroyed by an earthquake in 1902. The population, consisting almost entirely of Quiché Indians, is about 28,000.

TOTTEL, Richard, English printer and publisher: b. about 1525; d. 1594. He was granted a patent in 1553 to print law books, which was extended for life in 1559. He also published the writings of the men of his day. He was a charter member of the Stationers' Company which he left in 1589 because of poor health. His most notable work was done in compiling and publishing the first poetic anthology in England, 'Tottel's Miscellany) (1557). which contained 271 hitherto unpublished poems. Among his other publications were the translation of De Officiis' by Grimaldi (1556) and the translation of the second and fourth books of the Eneid' by Surrey (1557).

TOTTEL'S MISCELLANY. The work which commonly goes by this name was published under the title Songes and Sonettes, written by the ryght honorable Lorde Henry Haward ie., Howard] late Earle of Surrey, and other,' by the stationer Richard Tottel, on 5 June 1557. Its popularity was such that a second edition was issued in the following month and six others followed within the century. Tottel's method, too, was imitated by other editors and publishers and doubtless stimulated the vogue of what are now usually called the Elizabethan anthologies. In the address of "the Printer to the Reader," he alludes to the verse of well-known Latin and Italian poets, adding: "That our tong is able in that kynde to do as praiseworthy as the rest, the honorable stile of the noble earle of Surrey, and the weightinesse of the depe-witted sir Thomas Wyat the elders verse, with severall graces in sondry good Englishe writers, doe show abundantly." This passage indicates the real significance of the volume: namely, the effort which it represents to beautify English poetry and to show that the art of the Italians could be rivaled by the new courtly or cultivated school of British poets. Compare, to the same effect, a passage in a work called The Arte of English Poesie' (1589), attributed to one George Puttenham : "In the latter end of the same kings raigne [i.e., Henry VIII] sprong up a new company of courtly makers, of whom Sir Thomas Wyat the elder and Henry Earle of Surrey were the two chieftains, who having travailed into Italie, and there tasted the sweete and stately measures and stile of the Italian Poesie, as novices newly crept out of the schooles of Dante, Arioste and Petrarch, they greatly pollished our rude and homely maner of vulgar Poesie, from that it had bene before, and for that cause may justly be sayd the first reformers of our English meetre and stile."

Wyatt had died in 1542 and Surrey in 1547, but it was reserved for the publisher Tottel to secure manuscript copies of many of their poems and bring them out for the first time in print. These occupy the place of honor in the volume, being followed by poems attributed to Nicholas Grimald (who has been suspected of acting as Tottel's editor) and by those referred to "Uncertain Authors." A number of the poems in this last group can be identified, one of them, indeed, being a now familiar lyric of Chaucer's; but the majority remain anonymous, nor is any of these comparable to the best work of Wyatt and Surrey. The elements of familiarity and of novelty in the collection are perhaps best illustrated by the metrical form of the various poems. One finds, for example, the old "rhyme royal" stanza of Chaucer, and the loose, sometimes doggerel "septenary," or sevenfoot line, which had been popular from the Middle English period; but side by side with these occur specimens of Italian forms not previously naturalized in English. Of these last the most noteworthy are certain poems in the great Italian form, the terza rima, and a considerable number of sonnets - the first in English poetry. Wyatt's sonnets, largely versions of Italian and French poems, follow the recognized continental types; while the younger poet, Surrey, seems to have undertaken to modify the form in the direction of English taste, with the re

sulting type of sonnet, in three quatrains and a couplet, which was to be the favorite in the Elizabethan age and the form chosen by Shakespeare. Outside the work of these two poets, the contents of the miscellany are of slight intrinsic value; but its historical importance is so marked that because of its publication in 1557 it is customary to date from that year the beginnings of modern English poetry.

A convenient modern edition of Tottel's Miscellany is that in Arber's English Reprints.' For accounts of the poetry of Wyatt and Surrey consult Courthope's History of English Poetry and Padelford's Early 16th Century Lyrics (Belles Lettres Series).

RAYMOND M. ALDEN.

TOTTEN, tot'ën, Charles Adiel Lewis, American inventor and military instructor: b. New London, Conn., 3 Feb. 1851; d. Milford, Conn., 12 April 1908. He was graduated at West Point in 1873 and was instructor in military science and tactics at the Amherst Agricultural College, at the Cathedral School, Saint Paul, N. Y. and at Yale University. He patented improvements in high explosives, in collimating sights and in signal-shells; besides a system of weights and measures and improvements in linear and other scales. He patented a war game which he described in a publication entitled 'Strategos, the American War Game' (1880) and also published Important Questions in Metrology) (1883). More recently he issued 'Lost Israel Found in the Anglo-Saxons' (1890) and Joshua's Long Day and the Dial of Ahaz' (1891).

TOTTEN, Joseph Gilbert, American military engineer: b. New Haven, Conn., 23 Aug. 1788; d. Washington, D. C., 22 April 1864. He was graduated from West Point in 1805, was engaged in a survey of Ohio and the western territories, and in 1806 resigned from the army. He re-entered the army in 1808, was reappointed second lieutenant of engineers and was in charge of the construction of Castle William and Fort Clinton in New York Harbor until 1812. He was chief engineer in the army on the Niagara frontier during the War of 1812, was brevetted lieutenant-colonel in 1814, and after the war was engaged in the construction of coast defenses until 1838 when he was promoted lieutenant-colonel and chief engineer in the army, and shortly afterward became supervisor and inspector of the United States Military Academy. At the outbreak of the Mexican War he was placed in charge of the engineering operations and in recognition of his services in planning the siege of Vera Cruz was brevetted brigadier-general in 1847. He then resumed his duties at Washington, but was appointed one of the commissioners for arranging the terms of capitulation. He became brigadiergeneral in 1863 and in 1864 was brevetted major-general. He published Essays on Hydraulics and Other Cements' (1842).

TOTTENHAM, tŏt'ën-am, England, a town of Middlesex, forming a residential suburb of London and situated some six miles north of the Tower of London, just outside of the city limits. It was a favorite resort of Isaak Walton. Among its most interesting buildings are an old church and Bruce Castle, an Elizabethan mansion formerly owned by Robert Bruce. Pop. 150,000.

TOTTENVILLE, formerly an incorporated village in Richmond County, N. Y.; since 1898 in New York City. See STATEN ISLAND. TOTUAVA. See BLUEFISH.

TOUCAN, too-kän' or too'kan, a family (Rhamphastida) of coccygomorphous birds somewhat resembling the hornbills, and distinguished by the great development of the bill, which is curved superiorly and bears a prominent keel, with cutting edges frequently toothed. The outer walls of the bill are extremely thin, its interior is hollowed out into air-cells, and it is thus rendered comparatively light. The tongue is slender and barbed along the sides. The toes are paired, two forward, two backward and the tarsi scuttelated, the wings rather short and the tail long, with 10 quills. The toucans are confined to tropical America, where about five genera and 60 species occur. They are birds of brilliant and striking plumage, and the bill and naked skin about the eyes partake of this brightness of hue. Most of the species are gregarious, spending most of their time in hopping actively about among the treetops and seldom flying far. The times of their greatest activity are the morning and evening, when the woods are filled with their loud harsh cries. While fruits are their chief food, insects and the eggs and young of birds are also eaten. They have a characteristic manner of throwing back the head and bolting their food. When sleeping the head and tail are turned toward each other and rest on the back. All of the species, so far as known, nest in holes in trees, the birds sometimes excavating a suitable place in a decayed stub. Only two white eggs are deposited.

The following are some examples of the species, many of which are familiar in the collections of zoological gardens. The toco toucan (Rhamphastos toco) is black with a black and orange bill, blue circumocular areas and white throat and rump. It is nearly two feet long and inhabits Argentina. A well-known relative is the ariel (R. ariel). The araçari (Pteroglossus aracari) is green with the head and throat black and the bill black and white. A related species (P. beauharnaisi) is dark green with the lower back crimson, the belly yellow and red and the bill black, orange and white. Both of these are found chiefly in the forests of the Amazon Valley. A well-known species is Selenidera spectabilis, in which the sexes are unlike. The hill toucan (Andigena bailloni) of the lowlands of Brazil, has the head, neck and lower parts orange yellow. Consult Sclater, Catalogue Birds British Museum,' XIX (London 1891); Bates, Naturalist on the River Amazon' (London 1863). See HORNBILL.

TOUCEY, tow'si, Isaac, American jurist: b. Newtown, Conn., 5 Nov. 1796; d. Hartford, Conn., 30 July 1869. He received a private classical education, was admitted to the bar in 1818, and established a law practice at Hartford. He was State's attorney for Hartford County in 1822-25, served in Congress in 1835-39 and was again State's attorney in 1842-44. He was governor of Connecticut in 1846-47, and in 1848-49 was United States Attorney-General. In 1850 he was elected to the State senate and served in the United States Senate in 1852-57. He was appointed Secretary of the Navy by President Buchanan in 1857 and served until

1861. His conduct of naval affairs was severely criticized. He was accused of favoring the secession cause by scattering the best ships of the navy in distant seas. The charge was denied, though Toucey continued to be regarded as a sympathizer with the South.

TOUCH, the sense of feeling. See SENSES.

TOUCHSTONE, LYDIAN STONE, or BASANITE, a velvet-black jasper, used on account of its hardness and the uniformity of its texture and color as a streak tablet for determining the relative amounts of baser metal and pure gold in alloys. The sample is rubbed on the stone and the color is then compared with a series of standards of kown composition. The expert is able quite accurately to determine the fineness of the sample, the streak becoming redder as the proportion of copper increases, or yellower as the percentage of gold increases. This method of testing has been in vogue from the earliest times, the name Lydian Stone appearing as long ago as 450 B.C. Modern methods of assaying have now largely superseded the use of this stone.

TOULON, too-lon, France, a fortified seaport town and naval arsenal, in the department of the Var, on the Meriterranean, 42 miles southeast of Marseilles. The port is separated from the roadstead by bomb-proof moles and comprises two parts: one, including the merchant shipping; the other, the dockyard, slip, arsenal, foundry, etc. The fortifications are very complete. The cathedral was founded in 1096. This, the hôtel-de-ville and a capacious theatre are the chief of the old buildings; more recent are the Museé Bibliothèque, Marine School, library and observatory, the lyceum and botanical gardens. The Place de la Liberté contains a splendid monument to the heroes of the Revolution; Le Place d'Armes, the Boulevard Strasbourg and Jardin de la Ville are prominent promenades. It has modern fortifications of the first class and is headquarters for one of the five maritime arrondissements carrying stores for the Mediterranean fleet, with important shipbuilding interests. The bay or harbor is defended by torpedoes and commanded by six forts. On the hills north of the city very strong forts are located. Toulon was known to the ancients as Telo Martius or Telonion. The Saracens sacked the city in 889 and Charles V captured it twice in the 16th century. Louis XIV gave Toulon its importance as a naval station, making the dockyards and arsenal the finest of France. Toulon first became famous as a stronghold in the 16th century. Here the English were defeated by the fleets of France and Spain (1744); and in 1793 Napoleon forced the English and Spaniards to evacuate the position his first memorable victory, while commanding the French Republicans. In time of peace about 600,000 tonnage is entered and cleared annually. The principal trade is in wines, fruits and oils. There are metal manufactories and lace works. Pop. about 107,000.

TOULMIN, Henry, American lawyer: b. Taunton, England, 1767; d. in Washington County, Ala., 11 Nov. 1823. He came to Norfolk, Va., in 1793 and in 1794-96 was president of Transylvania University. In 1796-1804 he was secretary of state of Kentucky and in the latter year was appointed judge of the United

States District Court of Mississippi. He assisted in framing the constitution of the State of Alabama, in whose legislature he served. He was author of A Description of Kentucky' (1792); A Collection of the Acts of Kentucky) (1802); 'Review of the Criminal Law of Kentucky) (1804); 'Digest of the Laws of Alabama' (1823).

TOULOUSE, Edward, French alienist: b. Marseilles, France, 1865. He studied in Paris and became head physician of the asylum at Villejuif where he established a laboratory for experimental psychology. He founded the Bibliothèque de Psychologie Experimentale and other journals and was a writer of repute on his specialty. His chief publications were (Organisation scientifique d'un service d'aliénés' (1900); Technique de psychologie expérimentale (2 vols., 1905; 2d ed., 1911); Comment conserver sa santé (1914); etc.

TOULOUSE, too-looz, France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, 140 miles southeast of Bordeaux, on the Garonne. It is the centre of railway traffic and river and canal freight in southern France. A fine bridge connects the town with the village of Saint Cyprien. It is a quaint old town, but very enterprising. The most remarkable buildings are the cathedral, church of Saint Sernin, Hotelde-Ville, museum and Palais-de-Justice. The Musee contains an almost unparalleled collection of objects d'arts from the Gallo-Roman to the Renaissance period. There are several fine academies of art, science and literature (one claiming its origin to have been in games of the troubadours of 1323, namely, Société des Jeux Floraux); professional and technical schools, a large public library of 225,000 volumes, an observatory and botanical garden. Toulouse is one of the larger cities of France, designated as the seat of a State university, which includes faculties of law, medicine, science, letters, etc. It has a library of over 150.000 volumes and nearly 5,000 students. There is also a large Catholic institution with theological, literary and scientific instruction. The old name of the city was Tolosa, dating back before the Christian era. It was sacked by Q. S. Cepio 106 B.C., and rebuilt and regarded as an important city in the 4th century. The Visigoths, under King Wallia, made it their capital in 419. It was taken by Clovis in 507, and was Charibert's capital in 630. For many hundred years it was the foremost city of southern Gaul. The Saracens took it in 718. The name developed into Toulouse about 780, where Charlemagne made his young son Louis, king of Aquitaine, with his capital there. About 850, the first Count of Toulouse established himself, and these nobles governed the city and southern France for over 500 years. The tribunal of the Inquisition was established at Toulouse. It was the scene of Hugenot massacres in 1562 and again in 1572. The manufactures include textiles, leather, cannon, steam-engines, tobacco, brandy, etc. In modern history, the most important event was its defeat by the English, while in ignorance of Napoleon's abdication. Pop. (1911) of commune 149,576, the town proper being about 23,000 less.

TOULOUSE, University of, celebrated French school of higher learning, founded by