nut) are exported annually. Coffee is cultivated in several districts to the extent of several million pounds a year and considerable quantities are exported. Sugar cane and tobacco are grown on the lowlands of the coast. Of the former about 16,000,000 pounds are produced yearly, an amount which about satisfies the domestic demand. Rice, quina, maize, wheat, barley, oats and a number of medicinal and industrial plants are also grown to supply_the home market and some are exported. rubber tree is plentiful and this industry is growing fast, the rubber exported annually reaching nearly $1,000,000 in value. Alfalfa is cultivated and the pastoral industries are thriving.

The

Communications.- Sixty miles of the railway from Guayaquil to Quito were built before 1880, that is, from the coast to the village of Chimbo, at the base of the cordillera. A company organized in the United States completed the road (25 June 1908); passenger trains make the trip (297 miles) in two days. The line starts from Duran, across the Guayas River from Guayaquil and ascends the Andes to a height of 11,841 feet, when it descends to a height of about 9,000 feet and continues on to Quito. The gauge is 3 feet 6 inches and the rolling stock consists of about 25 locomotives and several hundred passenger and freight cars. The Central Railway, from Manta on the coast to Santa Ana, is in operation as far as Puertoviejo, 25 miles, and when complete will be 35 miles long. A railway connects Bahía, Caracas and Quito (186 miles). A number of other lines are authorized, among them being a 125mile line from Ambato to the Curraray River, a line from Ambato to Banos, a line from Quito to a port on the Esmeraldas coast and one from Guayaquil to the coast. The total extent of the telegraph system is 5,482 miles with 204 offices. The Ecuadorian landing-station of the Central and South American Telegraph Company's cable is at Salinas, which was declared open as a minor port by executive decree 21 Aug. 1902. Quito and Guayaquil have telephone services; the latter a street car system. There are six wireless telegraph stations. two main ones at Quito and Guayaquil each, one on the coast to the north of Guayaquil and one on the Galápagos Islands and one each at Bolivar and Bahía. A score or more passenger vessels ply on the Guayas River and between Guayaquil and other coast towns. English steamships of the Pacific line and vessels of the Chilean line plying between Valparaiso and Panama call regularly at Guayaquil. There are about 200 post offices in the country and they handle yearly over 6,000,000 pieces of postal matter. The postal service is being gradually extended.

Some 20 steamers, as well as a number of sailing vessels, steam yachts, steam launches and gasoline launches maintain an active coast and river service, most of the numerous rivers of the country being navigable for considerable distances inland and affording excellent means of transportation. The Guayas River, at the mouth of which is the city and port of Guayaquil, is the most important of these waterways, being navigable for river steamers as far as Bodegas, 40 miles from Guayaquil, while smaller vessels can, during the wet season, reach Zapotal, some 200 miles inland. The Daule River is navigable for some 60 miles, the Vinces

for 50 miles, while the Esmeraldas, Naranjal, Santa Rosa, Santiago and Mira rivers are all navigable during the rainy season for short distances, varying from 10 to 60 miles or more. The Amazón, which in Ecuador is given the name of Marañón River, is navigable almost in its entirety and thus the eastern slope of the Ecuadorian Andes may be reached by way of Brazil and the Amazón River and its tributaries.

Army and Navy. In time of peace, the army consists of 7,810 officers and men, and reserves numbering possibly 100,000. The regular force is composed of 13 battalions of infantry, one regiment of cavalry, and 12 batteries of artillery, besides some departmental troops. These serve one year and then pass to the reserve and second line. The second line army has 135 infantry battalions, seven artillery regiments and 44 cavalry squadrons. The regular infantry have the Mauser rifle; the artillery have old-fashioned Krupps. Military service is obligatory from 18 to 32 years of age in the army, and from 32 to 45 in the national guard. The compulsory law, however, is not generally enforced. A mining and torpedo section, a sanitary section and a telegraph and telephone corps were created in 1910. The national guard includes companies of firemen organizations which are especially numerous and influential in Guayaquil. The naval vessels are one cruiser of 600 tons, one torpedo gunboat of 56 tons, one torpedo boat destroyer of 1,000 tons and a transport, with three launches, with a total equipment of about 200 men.

The boundaries of the republic being in dispute, and a large part of Ecuador's claim being unexplored territory, estimates of the total number of inhabitants vary; but the republic contains about 2,000,000. Of these from onehalf to three-fourths are Indians, about 600,000 half-breeds and only 205,000 pure whites. There is a small number of negroes.

The provinces of Ecuador, with their capitals and populations, are as follows:

Bibliography.-El Ecuador; Guía Commercial, Agrícola e Industrial de la República (Quito, annually); Enock, C. R., 'Ecuador' (New York 1914); Mozans, H. J., Along the Andes and Down the Amazon) (New York and London 1911); Pan American Union, 'Ecuador' (Washington 1915) and 'Latin America' (Washington 1916); Saville, M. H., "The Antiquities of Manabi, Ecuador) (New York 1907-10); Velasco, J. de, 'Historia del Reyno

de Quito (3 vols., Quito 1841-44) and a French translation of that work in H. TernauxCompans' 'Voyages, relations, et mémoires (2 vols., Paris 1840); Suárez, F. Gónzález, 'Historia general de la república del Ecuador' (7 vols., Quito 1890-1903); Whymper, E., Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator' (New York 1892).

MARRION WILCOX.

ECUMENICAL CONFERENCE. An ecclesiastical body meeting once in 10 years. It is composed of representatives of the various Methodist bodies throughout the world. It has no legislative powers. The first one met in London, 7-20 Sept. 1881; nearly 400 delegates represented 28 bodies. The second met in Washington, D. C., 7-20 Oct. 1891. Twentyine bodies were represented and the total delegation numbered 485. The third conference met in London, 4-17 Sept. 1901. Twenty-four bodies sent 471 delegates. The fourth conference met in Toronto, Canada, 4-17 Oct. 1911. Twenty-one denominations were represented by 500 delegates. The procedings include the reading of papers on denominational history, polity and outlook and discussions of the same.

ECZEMA, ěk zě-ma, an acute or chronic disease of the skin, showing a vast variety of changes in the skin itself, and usually accompanied by intense itching, burning or pain. The changes in the skin at first are usually marked by redness, papules, then small vesicles or pustules which later become crusted and dry; or the surface is weeping. Infiltrated and scaly patches are common. All of the different forms of eczema (and no less than a dozen varieties are described by skin specialists) have certain definite changes occurring in the skin. There is usually swelling, congestion and increase of temperature locally. There is almost invariably an exudation of fluid into the tissues, with the formation of vesicles and pustules, as described. There is further a certain amount of plastic exudation which produces in the skin papulous areas that are thickened and infiltrated. Finally there are the subjective symptoms of itching, which may be only a slight tingling.or prickling sensation, or may be so intense as to demand continued and deep scratching until bleeding or oozing takes place. This itching is, as a rule, intermittent in character, being almost invariably worse at night when the patient is covered, the heat of the body causing the aggravation. Sometimes exposure to cold brings about intense itching. The disease usually runs an acute course, and may be limited to one region of the body, or may be general. Its general tendency is to progress rather than to get well. It is perhaps one of the most obstinate of all skin diseases, and at the same time one of the most difficult to diagnose and to treat. The causes are probably many. In general the fundamental pathology seems to be an over-active function of autonomic nerve stimuli going to the skin. This over-autonomic (parasympathetic) activity may be a primary one or be an imbalance from subacting sympathetic stimuli. The study of this lack of balance may involve a wide search for physicochemical, sensori motor or phychic disturbances, and a truly helpful therapy must take into account these underlying features. Inasmuch as orthodox medicine has found the dis

order very intractable it would seem to indicate the lack of deep consideration of the dynamic factors in human pathology — notably the importance of mental as well as so-called physical factors. The treatment of each case is a particular study. Sometimes the disease is beyond the power of the best skin specialist; usually such cases are psychogenic in their origin and the average skin specialist is too uneducated to know anything about mental causes. At other times corrections of minute errors in diet will bring about cure. So far as household remedies are concerned, only those that can relieve the itching are deserving of notice in this place. One of the best of these is carbolic acid in weak solution-2 to 3 per cent. This may be applied on a bit of absorbent gauze, special care being taken not to enclose a particular part completely with the weak carbolic acid. Bland non-irritating powders, such as calamine and oxide of zinc are often useful. When the disease becomes chronic it is apt to be extremely obstinate. Many of the chronic cases rest upon an endocrinopathic basis, which in its turn often depends upon neurotic disturbance.

EDAM, e'dăm, Holland, town 12 miles northnortheast of Amsterdam, and about a mile from the western shore of the Zuyder-Zee, with which it is connected by a canal. This place is chiefly noted for its trade in cheese, of which nearly 1,000,000 pounds are annually sold in its market. Other industries are shopbuilding, leather manufacture, rope and sail making. The town was once fortified, and has still a wall with seven gates. Its Reformed Church of Saint Nicholas, with large painted windows, is among the finest in North Holland. Pop. 6,444.

EDDAS, The. The name given to two collections of early Icelandic literature, very unlike in character. The 'Poetic Edda' consists of a series of lays in various metres, most of them celebrating the deeds of gods and heroes; the Prose Edda' is a manual of instruction for poets, in which information in regard to the matter and form of poetry is given in prose, with some illustrations in verse. The Poetic Edda' is the work of different authors, no one of whom is known by name. Internal evidence shows that the lays which compose it date, in their present form, from the 9th to the 12th centuries inclusive; most of them belonging, perhaps, in the 10th. They were united into a collection by an unknown Icelander in the early 13th century. His transcript is lost, but the material is extant in later copies. The best and oldest manuscript is the Codex Regius, now in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. This dates from the end of the 13th century, but was not recovered until the 17th century, by the Icelandic bishop Brynjolf Sveinsson. He called it the 'Edda of Sæmund the Wise, because he thought that a learned Icelander of the 12th century, Sæmund Sigfusson, might be the author or collector of the pieces. Modern criticism has shown this to be impossible, but the term 'Sæmundar Edda' is still sometimes erroneously used. The author of the 'Prose Edda' was the Icelander Snorri Sturluson, (1178–1241), a literary man of great distinction. Hence the 'Prose Edda' is often called the 'Snorra Edda,' and sometimes the 'Younger Edda, to distinguish it from the Elder or

Poetic collection. The term "Edda" belongs properly only to the work of Snorri. It probably means "the book of Oddi," a little place in Iceland where Snorri and Sæmund lived. "Edda" also signifies "great-grandmother"; hence the collection has been fancifully interpreted as tales told by an old woman to her descendants. Again, it has often been understood as "a system of poetry." Whatever its origin, the term has won its way to the best modern usage.

The Poetic Edda' falls roughly into two divisions, treating respectively of gods and heroes. The Lays of the Gods differ a great deal from each other in character and technic. The Voluspa,' or 'Prophecy of the Sibyl,' is an account of the creation and fated destruction of the world. 'Balder's Dreams' has a similar setting; the prophetess gives Odin information about the future, explaining the evil dreams that have afflicted the god Balder. The 'Lay of Thrym is a humorous piece, narrating the stealing of Thor's hammer and its recovery by Loki. Similar in character is the 'Lay of Hymir, in which Thor goes out fishing on the wintry sea with the giant Hymir, and catches the world-serpent which lies at the bottom, encircling the earth. In the Word-Combat of Loki, the treacherous god recalls, at a banquet from which he has been excluded, disreputable incidents in the lives of the deities, until silenced by Thor. The 'Lay of Skirnir' relates a loveaffair of the god Frey. Several pieces consist of moral reflections, set in a narrative framework. In the 'Lay of Hoarbeard' and the 'Lay of Vafthruthnir, Odin shows his supremacy in contests of wisdom; in the 'Lay of Allwise the victory is with Thor, who keeps the dwarf Allwise above ground after sunrise, so that he is turned to stone. In the Lay of Grimnir' Odin utters wisdom in disguise. The Havamal, the Words of the Mighty One,' is a collection of gnomic material. The 'Lay of Rig' and the 'Lay of Hyndla,' of minor importance, and the 'Lay of Swipdag,' with the setting of a love-story, but uniting the prophecy and the word-contest, complete the collection, except for material of little significance.

With the exception of the Lay of Weland,' the celebrated smith, and three 'Helgi-Lays,' the second section is concerned with the personages connected with the great story of Sigurd, the German Siegfried, which is here much extended. A short prose section, 'Sinfjotli's Death, and the Prophecy of Gripir.' lead to the 'Lay of Regin' and the 'Lay of Fafnir.' Sigurd slays the dragon and gets the Nibelungen gold. In the 'Lay of Sigrdrifa' (Brynhild) his meeting with the Valkyrie is described; and the well-known story is continued in two lays centering about Sigurd, three concerned with Gudrun and two describing the tragedy at the court of Atli. The 'Lament of Oddrun' deals with the love of the sister of Atli for Gunnar. The 'Exhortation of Gudrun' and the 'Lay of Hamthir' describe events after Gudrun's marriage to Jonakr, particularly the pathetic tale of Swanhild. The 'Lays of the Heroes' often attain a high level of tragic power. Dramatic moments are emphasized and details omitted and the stanzaic structure heightens the effect of intensity, much as in the traditional ballad-verse. The whole is very different from the tranquil and ample narrative of

Anglo-Saxon poetry. Mythological interpretations of the poems as allegories of the processes of nature must be received with caution. The hypothesis of Sophus Bugge that many of the lays have their origins in classical and Christian traditions has not met with general acceptance.

After a Prologue, the 'Prose Edda' narrates the 'Beguiling of Gylfi, in which, under a narrative disguise, information about mythology and cosmogony is set forth. In the 'Narratives of Bragi, the god of poetry tells stories of Odin and Thor. The section entitled "The Poesy of Skalds' treats of methods of poetic expression; and in order to illustrate metaphor and allusion, much of interest in Scandinavian mythology and story is given to the reader. The concluding portion, the 'Hattatal,' consists, besides explanatory material, of a poem on King Hakon Hakonarson in more than a hundred stanzas, cach in a different metre. This latter section is without much interest for the modern reader, but earlier parts of the work, though intended mainly for technical instruction in the making of skaldic verse, are often highly picturesque and of great value in the study of Scandinavian traditions.

Bibliography.- The Lays of the Gods have been translated by Olive Bray (Viking Club, London 1908); the second volume to contain the Lays of Heroes, has not yet appeared. The German translation by H. Gering of the. entire Poetic Edda may be used in default of an English version. The best portions of the (Prose Edda have been translated by A. G. Brodeur (New York 1916).

WILLIAM WITHERLE LAWRENCE, Professor of English, Columbia University. EDDY, Clarence, American organist and composer: b. Greenfield, Mass., 23 June 1851. He studied under Buck in Hartford, counterpoint under Haupt, and piano under Loeschhorn in Berlin. In 1874-76 he was organist of the First Congregational Church, Chicago; afterward organist and choirmaster of the First Presbyterian Church for 17 years and from 1875 to 1908 was director of the Hershey School of Musical Art. In 1877-79 he gave a series of 100 organ recitals, with entirely different programs, a memorable achievement in American musical annals. He has played at several expositions in America and abroad and has given recitals in the principal American and European cities. He has composed several works for the organ and has written "The Church and Concert Organist (3 vols., 1885); (The Organ in Church (1887); 'Concert Pieces for the Organ) (1889), and a translation of Haupt's "Counterpoint, Fugue, and Double Counterpoint) (1876).

EDDY, Henry Turner, American scientist: b. Stoughton, Mass., 9 June 1844. He was educated at Yale and later took a further scientific course in Berlin and Paris. After holding a professorship in mathematics, astronomy and civil engineering at the University of Cincinnati 1874-90, and acting as dean of the academic faculty of that institution (1874-77, 1884-89), he became its president in 1890. He was also president of the Rose Polytechnic Institute at Terra Haute, Ind., from 1891 to 1894, when he accepted the chair of engineering and mechanics at the University of Minnesota. He