ondary education important beginnings were made. In 1647 the colonial legislature of Massachusetts decreed that an elementary school should be maintained in every town of 50 families; and that in every town of 100 families there should be a grammar school, in which students might be fitted for the university. This provision was copied by the colonies of Connecticut and New Hampshire, and in Connecticut the provision was afterward changed to require a grammar school in each county town. These New England colonies maintained and enforced such provisions down to and after the Revolution. Maryland also established by law a system of county grammar schools. When the colonies were transferred into States, after the Declaration of Independence, the systems of schools in the four colonies mentioned were continued with little change, but no other of the 13 States had anything that could be called a system of public instruction.

THE PERIOD FROM THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR TO THE CIVIL WAR.

1. The Founding of Academies.- As we approach the Revolutionary period, we find new social conditions giving rise to a new order of schools. With the growth of sectarian differences there appeared a decided tendency toward the separation of governmental from ecclesiastical affairs and thus the position of educational institutions was disturbed. This change lessened the prestige of colonial systems of education among the adherents of the religious denominations and a growing distrust of the colleges appeared among those who were most in accord with the secularizing tendency of the time. The old grammar schools were weakened by these influences and in their stead there grew up a new type of secondary school, commonly known as the academy.

Both the name and the character of the new institution were suggested by precedents in England, where the Dissenters were excluded from grammar schools and universities. In the latter part of the 17th century the non-conformist bodies first established "academies," schools in the main secondary, which, however, undertook to prepare candidates for the non-conformist ministry. The fame of these English academies seems to have influenced the thought of the American colonists in the matter of public education; first the strong theological bent of their English prototypes reappeared in the new American schools; and then the resemblance was more obvious in the wide range of studies offered, for the English academy had been more practical and technical than the university. But the American academies soon came to have a well-defined character of their own, apart from any conscious imitation of English models.

In 1726, a school for classical and theological studies was established by a Presbyterian minister at Neshaminy, in Pennsylvania. It was commonly known as the "Log College," as its home was a building made of logs. This school in the wilderness was the centre of deep and widespread interest in classical studies as well as in the religious life. It sent out large numbers of zealous pastors and teachers, who established "log colleges" all over the highlands of the middle and southern colonies. The Neshaminy Log College itself was later incorporated with what is now Princeton Uni

versity. Through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin, a school was established at Philadelphia, legally incorporated as an academy in 1753, and probably the first institution in America formally designated by that title. It was under the control of a self-perpetuating board of trustees. A fund raised by private subscription for its establishment and maintenance was supplemented by a grant from the city treasury and by tuition fees, which were_remitted in the case of those unable to pay. This academy organized in three departments or schools; namely, the Latin, the English and the mathematical, put little stress on the theological element and much on English language and literature and the mathematical sciences. The school ultimately developed into the University of Pennsylvania. Within two or three decades after the founding of this school at Philadelphia, a number of schools somewhat similar in character, and some of them bearing the name academy, were established in the middle and southern colonies. In New England the two Phillips academies, one at Andover in Massachusetts and the other at Exeter in New Hampshire, were incorporated in 1780 and 1781, respectively. The influence of these two schools extended to remote States, especially in the growing West; and they still rank among the strongest and most influential secondary schools. The academy movement begun in Revolutionary times grew apace even down to the period of the Civil War. More than 150 were incorporated in Massachusetts alone between 1780 and 1865. Dexter in his "History of Education in the United States' tabulates 6,085 academies in the United States in 1850, employing 12,260 teachers and giving instruction to 263,096 pupils.

2. The Character of the Older Academies.The old academies were generally endowed institutions, organized under the control of selfperpetuating boards of trustees or of religious bodies, established to serve the need of a wide constituency and not merely of a single community, and often located in small country places. Many of them made provision for boarders as well as for day pupils. They were not intended in any exclusive sense for the training of future members of the learned professions, although many of them developed into preparatory schools. In the Western States preparatory schools attached to colleges were commonly called "academies." But such was not the earlier purpose of the academies, which were largely schools for the middle classes and answered to a growing desire after learning for its own sake, or for the increased efficiency it would give in other than professional pursuits.

Their training was more "practical" than that of the colleges, wider and more liberal than that of the grammar schools, or of some of the colleges. They laid new stress on the study of the English language, together with grammar, rhetoric and public speaking. They taught mathematics, often including surveying and navigation; began the study of natural science, especially of natural philosophy (physics), of which astronomy constituted an important division; gave courses in geography, ancient history, English and above all American history, French often and German seldom. Latin and Greek were the substantial core of the instruction offered. In the earlier days, the

course of study was not well defined. In English, Latin and mathematics a good degree of continuity of work was apparently maintained, but in others, classes were formed at irregular periods, because of the exigencies of rural life which demanded certain courses be confined to a short winter term not interfering with farm labor. When finally definite courses of study were laid out, they varied in length from three to four or five years. Parallel courses were offered. That including classical studies and covering the required preparation for admission to some college was commonly regarded as the standard course of the school. With this might be found an English course. Afterward a scientific course was often provided.

Many of these schools were established by religious bodies. Catholic secondary schools began to appear in this period, established by the several teaching orders. The Society of Jesus founded institutions of secondary and higher education in the United States after the Revolutionary War; the Brothers of the Christian Schools opened their first school in America at Montreal in 1838; soon after set up establishments within the United States, at Baltimore and New York, and followed these elementary schools with secondary courses; and besides many conventual schools for girls were established, which drew a large clientage from other than Catholic families. The academies established by Protestant bodies usually terminated their formal connection with ecclesiastical societies upon their legal incorporation. The religious instruction which they carried on concerned itself for the most part with the broad underlying principles of Christianity, so that the non-Catholic academies, even such as had arisen from the initiative of religious societies, tended toward the non-sectarian character which has been more fully exemplified in the public schools of later times.

The grammar schools had been exclusively for boys. Such was the case with many of the academies. But others were coeducational, and there grew up also a large number of academies for girls, which were all too often weighed down with the title of "female seminary." The last two prepared the way for two types in higher education, appearing in the fourth decade of the 19th century; namely, the coeducational college and the college for women exclusively.

The academies broadened the intellectual horizon of families and communities and reinforced the protest which was arising against the narrow curriculum of the American colleges. In the absence of special schools for the training of teachers, the better elementary schools were for a long time in the hands of academy graduates. Special classes were organized in New York and Pennsylvania academies for instruction in the art of teaching and a seminary for teachers was opened in connection with Phillips Academy at Andover. When State normal schools began to be established in Massachusetts in the year 1839, suggestions for their organization and management were drawn from this seminary and from the current practice of academies. With the introduction and subsequent rapid growth of normal schools in this country a new means of secondary training of considerable importance was

added, since these institutions began and continued to devote a large share of their time to work essentially academic in character and of secondary rank.

3. The Rise of the Public High School.In the early part of the 19th century there appeared a strong demand for schools under the exclusive control of the State. The Calvinistic view of the civil power had prepared the way for State agency in education, and the steadily advancing separation between Church and State kept alive the question as to the relation of the schools to both. The wellestablished theory that the State should grant charters to colleges, authorizing them to manage their own affairs under close corporations, with incidental aid from the State in the shape of gifts of land or money, was long applied to secondary education as well. The first step in the establishment of public secondary schools was taken by the larger towns and municipalities, under the lead of Boston, where in 1821 was established an "English Classical School," which soon took the name of "English High School," probably imitating the style of the Edinburgh High School. The report to the school committee made at the time of its founding said: "The mode of education now adopted, and the branches of knowledge that are taught at our English grammar schools are not sufficiently extensive nor otherwise calculated to bring the powers of the mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill usefully and respectably many of the stations, both public and private, in which he may be placed." A three-year course was adopted, embracing English language and literature, mathematics, navigation and surveying, geography, natural philosophy (including astronomy), history, logic, and moral and political philosophy. Latin and modern languages were added afterward and the course was extended to four years. Students were received into the high school from the elementary schools of the city, but at first were not prepared for admission to college, that being the function of the Latin school. But with the addition of foreign languages to its course of study the English High School fitted its students for admission to certain higher institutions.

Other Massachusetts towns followed the lead of Boston in this matter. Philadelphia, in 1838, established the Central High School, under special authorization from the Pennsylvania legislature. Baltimore followed with the establishment of a "city college." Providence opened a public high school in 1843. Hartford, in 1847, transformed her old grammar school into a school of the newer type. New York opened a "free academy" in 1848, the name of which was afterward changed to the College of the City of New York. This school was established in accordance with a special act of the State legislature, ratified by vote of the people of the city. The growth of public high schools prior to the Civil War was not rapid. The exact number established in the first 40 years of the movement has not been accurately determined, due to the inaccuracy and meagerness of data upon the question. Inglis, compiling from data given in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1904, estimates the total number established prior to 1860 at 321, indicating, however, that the esti

mate is probably very inexact. Cubberley, following a table prepared by William T. Harris while United States Commissioner of Education, says that as late as 1860 but 69 of our present cities are regarded as having organized a clearly defined high-school course of study. Prior to the Civil War, and for a long time after it, the public high school movement encountered hostility from those who regarded the academy as the final or best solution of the problem of public secondary education. It also encountered hostility from those who were opposed on principle to the recognition of secondary education as a proper field for governmental agency.

4. The Beginnings of State Systems of Secondary Education.- Soon after the close of the Revolutionary War, new State systems of education began to be established, in which special provision was made for secondary schools. The University of the State of New York, erected in 1784, is a notable example of the strong influence which French thought then exercised in American affairs, as it realized the conception of a university put forth by Diderot and others of the great French writers of the latter half of the 18th century. It embraced the whole provision for secondary and higher education within the State, with the exception of schools of a purely private character. Its control was vested in a Board of Regents, consisting of the governor and the lieutenant-governor, ex officio, and 19 members elected by the State legislature. The reorganization of 1787 made the Board of Regents distinct from the Board of Trustees of Columbia College, with which it had been identical. This "university" exercised great influence on later systems; and in Georgia, by an act passed in 1785, "All public schools instituted, or to be supported by funds or public moneys in this State, shall be considered as parts or members of the university"; and in the territory of Michigan an act was passed in 1817 instituting a university of imposing character. The latter establishment existed mainly on paper, and the act incorporating it was repealed in 1821. The Georgia "university" also never amounted to much in its original form. But although the comprehensive type of university organization was not widely adopted, there was a general desire in the early part of the 19th century to establish complete and well-rounded systems of public instruction. The legislature of Tennessee declared in 1817 that "Institutions of learning, both academies and colleges, should ever be under the fostering care of this legislature, and in their connection with each other form a complete system of education." Even more significant is the provision of the constitution of Indiana, adopted in 1816, that "It shall be the duty of the general assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, to provide by law for a general system of education, ascending in regular gradation from township schools to a State university wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all."

For the most part, however, actual State agency in secondary education was as yet limited to the subsidizing of privately managed academies. In Massachusetts the provision for grammar schools under town control was continued after the colony became a State, but the law was so changed that only the larger towns

were left subject to this requirement. At the same time academies established by private initiative were endowed by the legislature with grants of public lands. In Kentucky the State legislature granted 6,000 acres of public lands to an academy in each county. In Pennsylvania colleges and academies received financial aid from the State for many years, culminating in 1838 in a general State system of educational subsidies. Five years later such aid was discontinued. In other States the granting of State subsidies, in money or lands, to secondary and higher schools was customary for many years. For the most part there was but little system or consistency observable in the distribution of such aid; and the State-aided institutions were not subjected to any sort of State control.

It would seem an easy transition from the State policy of granting subsidies to private secondary schools to the policy of providing by law for the establishment, and even the support, of such institutions. This transition was not, however, readily made, since, as has been mentioned, many objected to the principle involved regarding secondary education as a proper field of governmental agency. The legal questions wrapped up in this latter contention were not settled until 1874, when the Supreme Court of Michigan, in what is known as the "Kalamazoo Case, decided: "Neither in our State policy, in our constitution, nor in our laws do we find the primary school districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense and raise the taxes for the purpose." The principle involved was applied long before this decision, however. As early as 1798 Connecticut authorized the opening of higher schools by the local authorities ("school_societies"). In Massachusetts the law requiring grammar schools in the towns was so far weakened, in 1824, that towns having a population of less than 5,000 were allowed to substitute therefor an elementary school. But three years later, 1827, it was enacted that every town having 500 families should provide a master to give instruction in the history of the United States, bookkeeping, geometry, surveying and algebra; and every town having 4,000 inhabitants a master capable of giving instruction in Latin and Greek, history, rhetoric and logic. Due to the strong entrenchment of the "district system,» this law was modified and even weakened many times prior to the Civil War; but in the revision of 1859 all of the essential provisions were reenacted and even bettered. Iowa adopted a provision in 1849 expressly permitting the aiding of higher grades to the public schools; and in 1858 authorized the establishment of county high schools. In New York, systematic grading of schools went steadily forward; and the "academic departments" of these schools corresponding to the high schools of other States, formed a part of the University of the State of New York and received financial aid from the literature fund. In Maryland, the county academies, which had displaced the grammar schools of colonial days, continued for many years to receive financial aid from the State. Prior to the Civil War, therefore, all later types of State interest in secondary schools of a public character were at least represented:

the "permissive" type; the obligatory type; and the type in which a complete and well-rounded system was sought.

THE PERIOD FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT.

Diffi

1. Statistics of Growth.- From the Civil War to 1890 data upon this point are very incomplete and inaccurate. The United States Bureau of Education, formally established in 1866, almost immediately began to collect_statistics regarding secondary institutions. culties were at once met in classifying such institutions and in getting reports from them. Work of secondary character was done in schools bearing all sorts of titles: academies, high schools, seminaries, female seminaries, institutes, grammar schools, preparatory schools, colleges, universities, schools of science and normal schools. It was well into the eighties before the public high schools began to rival their competitors in numbers of students. Since 1890 the growth in such schools as well as in the number of students enrolled in them has been phenomenal. The following table is compiled from the reports of the United States Commissioner of Education:

The tremendous growth shown has been the result of a large number of factors. In the first place, social changes of great significance have been taking place since the Civil War period. A number of these changes peculiarly important in their bearings upon secondary education need but be mentioned: the rapid increase of population containing a large percentage more or less unacquainted with our political conditions; the growth of science with resultant discoveries and inventions; and, largely in consequence of these, the multiplication of industries and vocational opportunities requiring special training. Along with these, the increase in wealth, both public and private, the growth of cities, the systematization of business and the opportunities afforded for leisure have produced far-reaching results upon secondary and higher education. In the second place, education as a study has taken a place among the sciences. In this development secondary education has received attention, especially in the field of adolescent physiology and psychology. G. Stanley Hall's notable work on 'Adolescence' (q.v.), published in 1905, started a new interest in both the kind and the extent of education which youth should receive. All of these factors are extremely complex in their bearings; and in spite of the great advances so far made, the principles of secondary education both in their administrative and theoretical aspects constitute problems rather than fixed conclusions. Some

of the most important of these problems may be reviewed.

2. The Relation of Secondary to Higher Education. While the public high school grew up primarily to serve the students who did not plan to enter college, the new institution did not long remain uninfluenced by the demands of higher institutions. In the seventies and eighties, much discussion took place relative to the wisdom of high schools emphasizing preparation for college; but the question was soon dropped and the problem of adjusting the relation between these institutions became probably the most important question in secondary education for the ensuing three or four decades.

One of the earliest methods of adjusting this relationship, and one which remains to-day as probably the most effective, is the so-called "accrediting system." This system was inaugurated by the University of Michigan in 1871. Under it the university admitted to its freshman class, without examination, such graduates of approved secondary schools as were especially recommended for that purpose by the principals of those schools. It depended upon a purely voluntary agreement between the secondary schools and the higher institutions, so that the school rather than the individual was examined; and the inquiry related chiefly to the vitality, intelligence and general effectiveness of the instruction. A large number of other State universities have adopted this general plan; some have developed elaborate and rigid means of inspecting the secondary schools, while others have failed to do so because of the large amount of work and expense involved. Some have relied to a large extent upon written reports; others have insisted upon first-hand inspection by a university officer. In 1914, according to the bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education on "Accredited Secondary Schools in the United States" (Bulletin, 1915, No. 7), at least 19 State universities relied upon lists prepared by their own authorities. A number of private universities and colleges likewise build their own lists; some examples of these are University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins University, Catholic University of America and Saint John's College.

In a considerable number of cases State laws have empowered their own State departments of education to classify and standardize secondary schools. Some erect very elaborate systems of grading and employ an adequate inspection force. In 1914 New York had an inspections division under the Board of Regents consisting of a chief and 13 assistants, of whom 10 at least gave their whole time to the work. Ohio and Minnesota are other notable examples of this system, but with a less highly developed technique than New York. In many cases, State universities accept the lists of accredited secondary schools made by the State departments; such is the practice at present in at least 10 States. In some of the Southern States the success of this system has been made possible through co-operation with the General Education Board of New York city. These State lists have served other accrediting boards throughout the country and have exerted a powerful influence toward raising standards within the States preparing them.

A third series of agencies influential in developing the accrediting system may be found

in a number of associations formed in different sections of the country and made up of representatives from both secondary schools and higher institutions. These grew up primarily to bring these representatives together for the purpose of discussing common problems; and while retaining the original purpose, they have added the work of preparing lists of accredited secondary schools for the use of the institutions represented. The parent society of this sort is the New England Association of College and Preparatory (now Secondary) Schools organized at Boston in 1885. This organization prompted the establishment of The New England College Entrance Certificate Board in 1902. This is now made up of representatives from all the leading colleges and universites of New England and has a list containing the names of more than 400 accredited secondary schools. The Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland came into existence in 1892. Out of this grew the College Entrance Examination Board in 1900. While this board relies for the most part on the examination of the individual student, its influence upon the relation between secondary and higher education is essentially the same as that of the accrediting system. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools was formed at Evanston, Ill., in 1895; and The Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Southern States at Atlanta, Ga., in the same year. Both of these associations have extensive lists of accredited schools.

The criteria used by these different accrediting bodies differed widely in the demands they made upon secondary schools, and they still continue to do so. For example, at the present time the College Entrance Examination Board recognizes but 11 subjects as permissible in a standard high school course while the University of Minnesota recognizes 22. Some means of securing uniformity, therefore, became a significant problem; and this problem remains as vital to-day as it was in 1890. Inasmuch as no mechanical adjustment between secondary schools and colleges can settle this problem, the important attacks that have been made upon it have attempted to go to the bottom of the educational questions involved in order to get a basis for determining the details of relationship.

The first and one of the very most significant attempts at solution was made by the Committee on Secondary School Studies, appointed by the National Education Association in 1892 and known as "Committee of Ten." Nine sub-committees of 10 members each were appointed to prepare reports on the several ordinary departments of secondary school instruction; namely, Latin, Greek, English, other modern languages, mathematics, physics (with astronomy and chemistry), natural history (biology, including botany, zoology and physiology), history (with civil governinent and political economy), geography (physical geography, geology and meteorology). The Committee of Ten, having secured carefully prepared reports from its sub-committees and having examined a large number of the courses in actual use in secondary schools, drew up a report which was published by the United States government in December 1893, together with the reports of the several sub-committees.

Great stress was laid on the correlation of studies in secondary schools, the unifying of many subjects into a well-knit course of instruction, through the recognition of their numerous inter-relations. The committee would have continuous instruction in the four main lines of language, mathematics, history and natural science. In particular they recommended that in the first two years of a four-year course each student should enter all of the principal fields of knowledge, in order that he may fairly "exhibit his quality and discover his tastes"; and urge the postponement of the beginning of Greek to the third year, in order that the student may not find himself at the bifurcation of the course into classical and Latin-scientific courses before he is ready, or his advisers sufficiently informed as to his capabilities, to make an intelligent choice. The committee would require in each course a maximum of 20 recitation periods a week; but they would have five of these periods devoted to unprepared work; and would reserve double periods for laboratory exercises whenever possible. With reference to requirements for admission to college, the committee recommend "that the colleges and scientific schools of the country should accept for admission to appropriate courses of their instruction the attainments of any youth who has passed creditably through a good secondary school course, no matter to what group of subjects he may have mainly devoted himself in the secondary schools." "A good secondary school course" they describe as consisting of any group of studies from those considered by the sub-committees, "provided that the sum of the studies in each of the four years amounts to 16, or 18, or 20 periods a week, as may be thought best,- and provided, further, that in each year at least four of the subjects presented shall have been pursued at least three periods a week, and that at least three of the subjects shall have been pursued three years or more."

The next attempt at an adjustment of the relations of secondary schools and colleges, to the educational advantages of both, is contained in the report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, appointed in 1895 by the National Educational Association and consisting of 14 members, representing the high schools and universities of different sections of the country, under the chairmanship of the superintendent of high schools of the city of Chicago. The first important service rendered by the committee was the preparation and publication of a table showing the actual entrance requirements of 67 representative colleges, universities and higher technical schools in the United States. The committee's final report, presented at the meeting of the National Educational Association in July 1899, is mainly devoted to the attempt to establish "national units, or norms,' in the several subjects taught in the secondary schools as preparatory to the college course. The fundamental problem "is to formulate courses of study in each of the several subjects of the curriculum which shall be substantially equal in value, the measure of value being both quantity and quality of work done." In the determination of these norms the committee received assistance from several bodies of expert scholars in the several branches of instruction. The supplemental papers received from these bodies are published in connection with