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the committee's report. The committee adopted 14 resolutions, of which the following are of the greatest general significance:

1. That the principle of election be recognized in secondary schools.

4. That we favor a unified six-year high school course of study, beginning with the seventh grade.

6. That while the committee recognizes as suitable for recommendation by the colleges for admission the several studies enumerated in this report, and while it also recognizes the principle of large liberty to the students in secondary schools, it does not believe in unlimited election, but especially emphasizes the importance of a certain number of constants in all secondary schools and in all requirements for admission to college.

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12. That we recommend that any piece of work comprehended within the studies included in this report that has covered at least one year of four periods a week in a well-equipped secondary school, under competent instruction, should be considered worthy to count toward admission to college.

In more recent times a number of attempts have been made to solve the problem of the relation between secondary and higher institutions. One of these has accomplished considerable good on the side of the mechanical aspects involved in the adjustment; namely, the National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools, formed in 1906. This committee is composed of representatives from the accrediting associations mentioned earlier in this section, together with representatives from the National Association of State Universities, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the United States Bureau of Education. This committee has defined the "unit" for purposes of accrediting as follows: "A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting approximately a quarter of a full year's work. This statement is designed to afford a standard of measurement for the work done in secondary schools. It takes (1) the fouryear high school course as a basis, and assumes that (2) the length of the school year is from 36 to 40 weeks; that (3) a period is from 40 to 60 minutes in length; and that (4) the study is pursued four or five periods a week; but under ordinary circumstances a satisfactory year's work in any subject cannot be accomplished in less than 120 60-minute hours, or their equivalent."

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching gave very serious consideration to the question of the relation of high school to college in the annual reports of 1910, 1911 and 1912. These reports make rather severe attacks upon certain practices in both the high school and the college. The former is criticized for superficial work- the covering of too many subjects with thoroughness in none. The college is criticized for insisting upon too rigid prescriptions in traditional subjects for admission; they ignore changing social conditions. The burden of solving the problem is placed primarily upon the higher institutions: they must insist upon solid four-year high school courses, but must permit a wider range in the subject-matter in them.

The National Education Association has been giving renewed attention to the problem in the past five years. In 1910 the Committee of Nine on the Articulation of High School and College was appointed. The report was presented to and adopted by the Secondary Education Department of the Association the following year. In basic principles this report is in sympathy with the position of the Carnegie Foundation. Adopting the "unit" set by the National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools, it recommends the following standard high_school course: Nine specified units; three of English, two of one foreign language, two of mathematics, one of social science, including history, and one of natural science; two additional academic units, and four units left as a margin for whatever work best meets the need of the individual. A much more radical and fundamental solution of the question has been under consideration for the past four years by a committee of the National Education Association known as the Committee on Economy of Time in Education. A report of this committee was published by the United States Bureau of Education in 1913 and remains essentially unchanged as it is being discussed to-day. So far as the question here at issue is concerned, the following of its recommendations are most significant: The elementary school should take the child from 6 to 12; the high school period should be from 12 to 18 or 12 to 16, and the college period from 18 to 20 or 16 to 20. "The proposition," says the report, "to make the high school period 12-18 or 12-16 and the college period 18-20 or 16-20 will adjust itself in the following ways: (1) It begins high school work at the proper time and continues it to the recognized age of college admission or of beginning life (12-18); (2) it provides for a large number who will enter vocations at 16 and adjusts itself to the idea of an intermediate industrial school (12-16); (3) it provides for the contingency that the college course in the reorganized scheme will end with the sophomore year and that the two years of college may be done in the university or in the larger high schools, and that the independent colleges may make a four-year course (16-20), admitting from the smaller high schools at 16.»

3. Relation of the High School Course to Social Conditions and to the Needs of the Student. In spite of the so-called "domination" of the college over the high school, the latter institution has at no time in its history suppressed its original ideal of serving the youth of all classes. The lack of an energetic response on the part of the high school to changing social demands has been due in part to a basic principle of social psychology; namely, custom. The Renaissance ideal of a liberal education was the ideal of secondary education everywhere. It was well into the last half of the 19th century before the modern social view of education affected practice to any significant extent. Certain important changes in the course of study responding to this view have been made; many others are in the process of adoption.

One of the earlier movements of this character was the manual training movement, inaugurated by the foreign exhibits at the Phila

delphia Centennial Exposition in 1876. The first manual training high school established in the United States was that opened in 1880 in connection with Washington University at Saint Louis. In 1884 the Commercial Club of Chicago established the first private independent manual training high school in the country; the first public high school of this character was opened the same year at Baltimore. By 1890 at least 38 cities had such high schools; and by 1905 at least 63 cities had followed the example. Besides these, many academic courses had included the subject. In these schools and courses the idea of manual training for the purpose of general culture was usually uppermost, their projectors disclaiming any intention of establishing schools for the teaching of trades. At present there is a tendency to view the subject from the social and practical standpoint rather than from the disciplinary.

The commercial branches had their first appearance in secondary school courses very early in the form of bookkeeping and commercial arithmetic. In the second quarter of the last century, private business schools began to flourish; and during the period from 1850 to 1890 they multiplied rapidly and furnished practically all of the training demanded for purely clerical positions. The first Commercial High School, now in existence, was established by the city of Pittsburgh in 1872; the next was the Business High School of Washington, D. C., established in 1890; Los Angeles, Cal., came third in 1895. Other large cities followed: Louisville, Ky.; San Francisco, Cal.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Syracuse, Brooklyn and New York City Commercial courses were multiplied in academic high schools, and private business colleges waned in popularity for a time. In 1914 the United States Bureau of Education reported 2,914 public and private high schools offering commercial courses to 178,707 students. Very recently criticism has begun to the effect that commercial courses in public high schools do not after all really fit students for business; they approach their work from a point of view too academic. Some of the better commercial high schools are attempting to overcome this weakness by articulating the courses directly with commercial life; Boston and Cleveland furnish good examples of this tendency.

Preparation for agricultural pursuits through the high school began about 20 years ago, when Alabama established a school of this character in each of the nine congressional districts of the State. Five years later Wisconsin instituted its system of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy. This movement has gone steadily forward, and there are now at least 1,677 high schools, either public or private, giving courses in agriculture to 34,367 students.

At present there is no more important problem facing secondary school administration than that relative to the extension of vocational work in the high schools. States, cities and even the National government are taking an active interest in the question. Some States are encouraging the establishment of such courses by means of appropriations; many of the larger cities have already established them and are making elaborate vocational surveys looking toward their extension; and the question of Federal support to the movement in smaller places is being discussed. This whole move

ment centers for the most part in the secondary school period; and in this country the fixing of this period between the ages of 14 and 18 and the almost universal provision for it of a type of education essentially liberal in character cause the movement to be attended with tremendous difficulties which bid fair to produce far-reaching and fundamental reorganization within the whole secondary system. Significant steps in this reorganization have already been ventured. One of these may be found in the newer type of technical or vocational high schools. In these the older kinds of manual training work have been given a distinctly new turn toward the practical; trade courses of a high order have been added; and the academic subjects retained have in large part been treated from the standpoint of their bearing upon the practical work. Notable examples are the Albert G. Lane Technical High School of Chicago, opened in 1908; the Technical High School of Cleveland, opened in the same year; the Technical High School of Newton, Mass., opened in 1909, and the High School of Practical Arts for Girls, opened in Boston in 1907. A second type of readjustment, which has received at least a trial, is the so-called "Part-Time Cooperative Plan," well illustrated in the High School at Fitchburg, Mass. In 1908 a number of manufacturers together with the school authorities agreed upon the establishment of a combined shop and school course four years in length. During the first year the student spends his whole time in the school; for the next three years, he alternates weekly between shop and school, getting pay for the time he spends in the former. By this method the student gets actual shop training under shop conditions and secures a type of school work bearing directly upon the problems to be faced later in the calling. The Continuation School, so prominent in Germany, seems to offer a third type of desirable reorganization suitable to the needs of this country. Under this plan the employers permit their employees to attend vocational courses from four to six hours a week without loss of pay. Cincinnati began a high school course of this character in 1909. A fourth form of readjustment seems destined to give prominence to a kind of secondary school which is at total variance with the traditional ideals; namely, the Trade School. Such schools take

boys and girls 16 years of age or over and, with little regard to their previous training, aim to provide them with skill in a particular trade. Examples are the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New York City; the Philadelphia Trades School; the Milwaukee Trade School for Boys and a like one for girls, and the Worcester Trade School in Massachusetts.

Another form of adjusting the relation between secondary education and vocational life is so significant that it deserves special mention. For a long time it has been a question among educators whether our secondary school period did not begin too late; evidences of this feeling have been mentioned in connection with the discussion relative to the articulation of high school and college, notably the report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education. In more recent times, studies in retardation and elimination have brought the question distinctly to the foreground. If boys and girls who need it most are to get any school training at all

which is directly correlated with the demands later to be made upon them, they must begin before the close of the elementary school period as it now exists. To meet this situation, what is known as "prevocational work" has been established in the seventh and eighth grades. In some schools a ninth grade has been instituted and shares in this kind of work. At present there is a strong movement toward giving these grades, in whole or in part, a distinctive organization and name. So far as the titles are concerned, two are struggling for distinction, "The Intermediate School" and the "Junior High School." According to Briggs's treatment of the movement in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1914, at least 193 cities have effected an organization of the upper grades in some ways corresponding to the ideas contemplated in the movement. By many it is hoped that the next step in the movement will be the general adoption of a junior high school, taking the student from 12 to 15, to be followed by a senior high school carrying the work on to the 18th year. By this organization the differentiated courses of the one school would be directly articulated with those of the other. Just what this differentiation shall be is now under discussion; four types of courses are already prominent: the academic, the commercial, the household arts for girls and the industrial arts for boys.

Numerous as the difficulties of mechanical adjustment are in this whole movement for vocational training, they by no means exhaust the problems. The internal make-up of the courses is hard to effect, due to the lack of texts and to the lack of first-hand knowledge regarding the demands of the numerous callings; teachers who combine teaching ability with wide vocational experience are rare; and the relative amounts of attention to give to theory and to practice are very difficult to determine. Experience in the field has led to an increasing number of new needs and possibilities. The Vocational Guidance movement may be cited as one of the most significant. For the student to decide upon a calling he needs to have a rather wide knowledge about the demands of numerous vocations as well as a knowledge of his own capabilities and tastes. His location in a proper position, too, requires caution and direction. The course of study must provide for the first and a capable director is needed for guidance in the latter two. A few cities have made great advance already in attacking the question; the best known of these are Boston, Mass., and Grand Rapids, Mich. The vocation bureau of the former city was established in 1908 by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw under plans worked out by the late Dr. Frank Parsons. Meyer Bloomfield, the present director, has extended the work greatly and has described the results and problems in his 'Youth, School and Vocation.' The developments in Grand Rapids have been largely due to the work of the principal of the high school, Jesse B. Davis, whose book on 'Vocational and Moral Guidance' is exceptionally strong on the side of the educational aspects of the question.

The traditional secondary school course has not remained uninfluenced by the social and vocational movements in education; the course of study is receiving severe attacks from many quarters. The older problem of articulating

high school and college is being supplanted by the problem of adjusting courses of study to the needs of individual students and to social and civic life. The conception of liberal education is undergoing change; and in partial response to it, the "general course" is appearing among the parallel groups. Certain new studies have begun to appear, likewise, such as "general science," "community civics," art, history of art and music appreciation. Two very significant criticisms of the high school course have been issued recently by the General Education Board of New York city: one prepared by Charles W. Eliot, entitled 'Changes Needed in American Secondary Education, and the other by Abraham Flexner, entitled 'A Modern School. The former would, aside from the introduction of vocational subjects, have more emphasis placed upon sense training through the sciences and drawing and more time for music. The latter article would have four fields represented in the curriculum science, industry, æsthetics and civics; and within some of the subjects, radical reforms are contemplated in the way of bringing them into more direct bearing upon cultural and social life. Such reforms are proposed in particular for mathematics, ancient history and the modern languages; grammar, Latin and Greek would be eliminated entirely.

4. Problems in Method and Management.The great changes in the aim and course of study have been accompanied by changes equally significant in method and management. The laboratory method which came with the introduction of the sciences, needs but mere mention. Means for vitalizing these subjects, as well as of others, have multiplied greatly: pictures, charts, diagrams, museums, models, and moving picture appliances are examples. For the past 10 years New York State has appropriated annually $20,000 for visual aids to instruction. The numerous criticisms of the results obtained in modern language instruction have led to the partial adoption of the "Direct Method" in these branches. Dissatisfaction with results in English have led to an interest in the "Co-operation Plan," whereby all of the teachers in a given school submit part of their written work to the English teachers. Analytic and drill methods in history and literature are felt to be overdone and the so-called "Appreciation Lesson" is receiving a place in the newer books on high school method. Wider reading, fewer technical questions, dramatic presentation and more flexibility in general are required in this type of recitation. The learner, finally, is coming to be looked upon as a more important item in discussions of method than the teacher, and "teaching the pupil how to study» has come to be one of the newer efforts in the high school. A part of this involves library instruction or how to use books. All of these advances in method are virtually attempts to avoid a part of the cramming procedure which grew up while college entrance was looked upon as the chief purpose of the high school.

Changes quite as important are taking place in the field of management. The rapid growth of high schools has resulted in the bringing together of a large number of students in a single school; and athletic associations, dramatic societies, debating teams, fraternities, and all kinds of clubs have grown up. Both the social

and educational philosophy of the past two or three decades have pointed to the "Self-government" scheme as the wisest solution of most of the questions of control involved. In New York city, a "General Organization" has been effected to which a large number of the high schools of the city have subscribed. Each student in a given school, upon payment of twenty-five cents, becomes a member of this organization as effected in his own school. Such student members then adopt a constitution and a set of by-laws which govern all the societies and clubs of the school. In some high schools, school savings banks are instituted and placed under the management of students. Cooperation with the home, with the authorities of the local government, and with other associations or societies in the community may be cited as added evidences of the ideal to bring the high school into close connection with all the better forces in society.

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5. The Preparation of Secondary School Teachers. A committee of the National Education Association -- the so-called Committee of Fifteen on elementary education-reported in 1895, among other topics, on the training of teachers for secondary schools. The committee declared that, "The degree of scholarship required for secondary teachers is by common consent fixed at a collegiate education." They proposed a course of special training for such teachers, consisting of instruction during the senior year of the college course in psychology, methodology, school systems and the history, philosophy and art of education; and a graduate year of practice in teaching, under close supervision, supplemented by advanced studies in educational theory. That this proposal is far in advance of common practice or requirement no one acquainted with general conditions can doubt. To just what extent States and cities are tending in the direction of this early proposal - which still remains the ideal be determined only through a study of the widely varying and detailed laws and regulations now in force. Some of the larger cities closely approximate these ideals with the exception of the graduate study requirements; and the latter are often rewarded though not required. The very general "experience" requirement in large cities makes practice teaching unnecessary. One State- California - has very nearly met all of the requirements set forth in the proposals of 1895; a college degree from a recognized institution, graduate study both academic and professional amounting to one year or its equivalent, and practice teaching in the absence of experience are demanded. The State Board of Education is empowered by law to fix the details of certification regulations. In a considerable number of States, professional study of an undergraduate character is required of applicants qualifying under certain conditions. In general, the teaching force in the smaller high schools is not specifically prepared for the work it has to do. In New York State in 1914 very nearly one-half of all the high school teachers in the towns (as opposed to the cities) were holding normal school diploma licenses. In most sections of the country a strong tendency exists to employ only college graduates for high school teachers; but definite and serious study in the pedagogy of secondary training appears very rarely as a requirement

either through custom or law. What pedagogy that is required is usually of the general kind. About 50 per cent of the high school teachers of Vermont in 1914 had not even had this. The State Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts in the report of 1912-13 complains that while most of the high school teachers of the state are college graduates and that while many have taken pedagogical courses in such institutions, they "are, in relation to the work they are expected to do, deficient in professional training" and "approach their work as learners, as apprentices, to whom practical means and methods of effectively teaching boys and girls are as yet almost wholly unknown." Definitely planned systems for the training of secondary teachers do not exist in this country. Aside from the State College for Teachers at Albany, N. Y., which makes the preparation of high school teachers its main purpose, and several specific courses in other normal schools of the country looking in the same direction, the only means generally prevalent is that of the college and university departments of education, of which there are now some 350 of recognized standing. These, however, emphasize for the most part the general courses in education; secondary method in some of the branches taught in the high school receive attention, but usually from the professors in these subjects in the college; and few have well-organized practice teaching. Other means in the improvement of secondary teachers are summer school courses, reading circles, teachers' associations, teachers' meetings within a given school, travel bureaus, sabbatical years, and the like; but these must be considered only a very small part of the solution to the larger problem to be faced in the systematic professional training of instructors for high schools.

6. Tendencies in the Organization of State Systems of Secondary Education.- Nothing closesly approximating the highly centralized system of French and German secondary education exists in this country. While the State is the legal unit of educational administration in this country, powers with reference to detail in organization are usually delegated to State boards of education, cities, counties, or even smaller units. The real test of the centralizing tendency in this country, therefore, resides in the extent to which the State, either by law directly or indirectly by delegation to the State Board of Education, takes a hand in the vital detail of organization in schools. The application of this test to current practice shows results of a widely varying character so far as secondary education is concerned. A large number of the States provide for inspection of schools of this kind through an officer usually called "high school inspector"; in a few States deputy commissioners of education are appointed and assigned to secondary schools; in some cases, inspection is little more than a formality, while in others it is very careful and results in approved lists of schools that are accepted by the State universities; some halfdozen States employ systems of classifying high schools into grades and set minimal course requirements for each; in very few instances, are actual courses of study directly controlled by State boards. The laws relative to the establishment of high schools are in most of the States "permissive" in character; and while

State aid is quite general for schools in rural districts, it is usually small in amount and cautiously guarded. Complete State certification of secondary teachers seldom exists. Large cities constitute a class by themselves, and central control is almost unknown to them. Neither uniformity nor the centralized systems of Europe would necessarily mean efficiency in America. What is most needed are State boards of education, free from political influence, composed of men with large views and expert knowledge, and devoting themselves to vital questions of policy and vital questions of organization too large for the local administrative units.

A number of States began early to take certain steps toward efficient control, and recent times have added to the number; three or four among these may be mentioned. Massachusetts has already been discussed; the compulsory establishment of high schools, State aid to the poorer districts, and minimum course requirements of earlier years have persisted; and new extensions have been made in the way of State certification of teachers in the State-aided schools, State support for vocational education and inspection. Minnesota began a State system in 1881, headed by a State high school board which still exists and exercises such powers as approving courses of study, inspecting all high schools once a year, and determining what institutions shall receive aid. California and New Jersey have made notable advances in methods of certifying teachers and prescribing requirements for the same. New York, however, represents the most complete State system of control yet developed in this country. This system has been described in part already. Under it, all incorporated secondary schools are controlled by a Board of Regents serving as members of the University of the State of New York. This board manages the State funds to be distributed to secondary schools. Such funds, amounting to nearly $60,000 as early as 1832, have been added to by the legislature until in 1913 the total sum contributed to secondary schools was $650,000. Approximately $140,000 of this was given for books and apparatus and $322,398 for the payment of non-resident tuition, the remainder being apportioned on the basis of attendance of academic pupils. The Board also prescribes rules for awarding the State scholarships of $100 each to graduates of high schools to aid them in pursuing college work. Ultimately there will be 3,000 of such scholarships; in 1914 awards were made to 750 secondary school graduates. A large force of inspectors, assigned mostly according to branches of study, exercises supervision of instruction; and an assistant commissioner of secondary education devotes his whole time to this branch of education. For the purpose of instituting a uniform basis for the apportionment of the socalled "literature fund," the Regents adopted in 1864 a system of examinations of elementary pupils. In 1878, this system was extended to the academic branches; and in 1913, such examinations were held in 889 schools, with 404,576 papers written, of which 288,194 were accepted. These papers were first graded at the schools and then regraded under direction of the Regents at Albany. A special examina

tion board under control of the Regents now prepares the questions. Each school_falling under control of this central Board of Regents must report yearly to it and gets a rating in the annual report. By these four means -apportionment, examinations, inspection and reports the Board of Regents exercises most of its far-reaching control over the secondary schools of the State.

ELMER ELSWORTH BROWN, Chancellor of New York University. EDUCATION, Secretarial. See SECRE TARIAL EDUCATION.

EDUCATION, The State Universities. See STATE UNIVERSITIES.

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EDUCATION, Study of. The study of education is, on the one hand, the study of a profession the profession of the teacher, of whatever grade; and, on the other, the study of a social force- the force that preserves and improves the civilization of each generation, and transmits it to the next- and of the institutions which society has developed for the organization and administration of this force. It goes without saying that these two aspects of the Study of Education are not independent of each other. Further, it is clear that the study is either a professional or a "liberal" study in accordance with the object with which it is pursued. In this article no pains will be taken to keep these two aspects of the subject distinct. The context will make clear which aspect is under consideration, and also when both aspects are considered together.

The systematic study of education is now carried on in the United States chiefly in normal schools (State, city or private) and in colleges and universities. Less extended but often valuable opportunities for the study of education are afforded by county training schools for teachers, by classes in some high schools and academies, and by some other institutions: as, for example, training schools for kindergartners; some departments of the so-called "Institutes" (like Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, Pratt Institute of Brooklyn); and by "Teachers' Institutes." Teachers' institutes are carried on in towns or counties, for a few days or weeks, usually during the long summer vacation, and commonly receive support from the State treasury; they have been described as normal schools with very short courses of study. This article deals only with the study of education in normal schools, and in colleges and universities; because the work done by them is typical, and sufficiently comprehensive to cover the special work done in the other institutions mentioned. It may be said, however, that in general, the normal school aims only at the professional study of education; that the college or university department of education aims at both a professional and a "liberal" study of the subject, but of a higher grade than that of the normal school; and that the university "School of Education" aims at a professional study of education only, but, at present, of the grades undertaken by both the normal schools and the university departments of education. University schools of education are of recent origin, but they are already numerous.

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