teacher and the personality of the pupil, and how the skilful teacher adapts himself and his work to the different personalities in his class and to the varying moods of the same pupil. These are subtleties of the teaching art which can only be conceived as they are exhibited in the classroom.

Included in the training there should be some opportunity for each pupil to try himself in the conduct of a class in one or more of the subjects of the secondary curriculum. The proper conditions of such experimental practice are similar to those required for practice in elementary schools and need not be detailed here.

9. Were all people in agreement as to the necessity for some preparatory training for teachers in secondary schools, and did the lines of work which I have sketched appeal to all, there would still remain the questions, Where can the training be best given? Should it be in a normal school which is also training teachers for elementary schools, or in a separate normal school, or in a department of a university? Each has its advantages. Much of the work of the existing normal schools is adapted equally to teachers in all grades of schools. The elementary psychology and the observation of children which accompanies it is general in its application, and most of the principles of school management apply equally to all schools.

Besides this the student would be in an atmosphere sympathetic toward professional training. The presence of a body of college-trained students would also react favorably upon the other classes. One objection to connecting this work with a college or university, namely, lack of sympathy on the part of the college faculty and authorities, is gradually losing its weight. This is shown by the recent action of the Ohio legislature in establishing a Teachers College at the State University at Columbus, and the more significant action of Harvard in establishing education as a department coordinate with philosophy of which it has heretofore formed a part. When education in its theory and practice comes to be regarded as legitimate a subject of collegiate study as are other lines of human thought and social endeavor, a school for training teachers may without humiliation to its faculty and students be organically connected with any university. So placed, the school would have some advantage. The use of college libraries and laboratories, the association with scholars, the cultural traditions would be useful on the side of the scholarship of the prospective teacher, and so placed the school might win its way more directly to the interest and sympathy of secondary-school teachers in whose schools and classes the work of observation and practice would have to be carried on.

On the other hand, both the university connection and the special school are open to the objection that they tend to perpetuate the caste spirit which in many quarters is now so strong. That secondary-school teachers should assume that for any reason they are a class apart is most unfortunate. What the public schools need is some unifying influence which shall obliterate all distinctions based on such accidents as age and grade and curriculum, and

which shall unite all teachers in the study of common problems and in the advancement of common interests. Some such influences are already at work.

It is doubtful if it would be possible or wise to prescribe a universal rule as to the associations under which teachers should be trained. That will prove to be the best place where, under a faculty broad enough to have studied all the fields of educational effort, with opportunities for observation which include children and youth of all ages and for practice in secondary schools of acknowledged excellence, in an atmosphere sympathetic toward every form of training, the students will come to feel that they are members of no mean profession, and will grow to some adequate conception that the work demands. and is worthy of and will repay the most earnest and strenuous endeavor.

XII

M. V. O'SHEA, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

1. Requirement of professional interest and intention. In the improvement of the high-school teacher it is imperative that teaching in the secondary school be regarded as a serious profession, which cannot be entered on the spur of the moment by persons who are without other employment. In respect to its teaching force, the high school is now too much of a half-way station between the university and the bar, the hospital, the counting-room, and other interests. In this matter we can learn useful lessons from Germany, France, and other European countries. All our efforts at training secondary-school teachers. must prove more or less ineffective until candidates come to us in some such a frame of mind and with such intentions as those usually have who are preparing for law or medicine or engineering or commerce. It is believed that if the requirements indicated in the following theses be met, the need expressed in this first one will be realized.

2. Requirement of native fitness.-Speaking generally, but slight attention is now given to personal characteristics in the selection of high-school teachers. Consequently they are very frequently defective in qualities of leadership. Most colleges and universities have no effective method of choosing those among their students who are by native endowment well equipped for teaching. Practically all who have secured a diploma, and completed the small amount of required study in the department of education, are certificated, regardless of their natural fitness for this special work.

It is imperative that the institutions that train high-school teachers should

On a number of occasions the writer has expressed his views in considerable detail respecting various aspects of the training of the high-school teacher, and it seems appropriate at this time to treat the subject assigned him by presenting a series of theses without elaboration. If any reader should be interested in the arguments upon which these theses are based, he might glance over the following: "Teachers by the Grace of God" (Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. XIII, 1900); "Concerning High-School Teachers" (The School Review, Vol. X, 1902); "Psychology in the Training of Teachers" (Elementary School Teacher, November, 1904); "The Function of the University in the Training of Teachers" (The School Review, Vol. VIII, 1900); “Universities and Normal Schools in the Training of Secondary-School Teachers" (Part I, of Fourth Yearbook of the Society for the Scientific Study of Education).

adopt a plan whereby they may early discover candidates who do not meet the personal requirements, and dissuade them from striving to become teachers. The opinions of all who have had to deal with the student during his academic career should be secured, but the department of education should be specially responsible for the task indicated in this thesis. Altho the problem is a peculiarly difficult one, and cannot be solved completely under existing conditions in colleges and universities, still if the need be felt deeply more can be done than is now done in most places. But the universities must act in unison; no single institution can make great headway against the academic tradition that one can teach in a high school if only he has amassed a sufficient amount of formal knowledge in any subject.

3. Requirement of scholarship.-One cannot teach a subject unless he has thoroly mastered it. He must have a real, vital grasp of it, and not merely a formal or verbal knowledge of it. Teachers are often found giving instruction in subjects which they have acquired for purposes of securing a certificate and such instruction is always shallow, mechanical, ineffective. It amounts often to little more than memoriter drill on unintelligible technical terms.

Teachers in secondary schools should be certificated to teach not all subjects whatsoever, but only the subject in which they have shown special proficiency. To meet the necessities of teaching in small high schools, it will often be necessary for teachers to teach more than one subject; but in such case, the certificate should indicate the major subject (the candidate's specialty) and the minor subjects, not to exceed two in any case. The several departments of the university should be made solely responsible for determining which of their students have acquired such a genuine mastery of their respective subjects that they may be certificated to teach them.

A teacher's mastery of a subject must include an understanding of what aspects thereof are most appropriate for secondary-school students and what point of view in presenting the subject will prove most effective. To this end every teacher should be required to complete a teacher's course in the subject he is to teach, and this course should be conducted by one who is thoroly familiar alike with the subject, and with the nature and needs of secondaryschool pupils. Mere advanced, technical courses should not be regarded as in any sense teachers' courses, as is now the case in some universities. The teacher's course should be regarded as graduate work, as indicated in the following thesis.

4. Requirement of studies in education.-The experience of nations has shown that in order to achieve the highest success teachers should understand the subject as well as the material of education, and should become possessed of what is known respecting methods of economy and efficiency in organizing and managing a class or a school or an educational system. Further, the teacher is a servant of society in a very vital sense, and he should be made conscious of his opportunities and duties in this respect. To meet these requirements, then, every teacher should complete courses treating of the principles

of human nature in general, and of the nature of secondary-school pupils in particular. He should also complete a course treating of the psychology of learning under the conditions of school education. These courses should confer upon him greater efficiency in adjusting his subject as a whole and in each part to the needs and capabilities of his pupils. Next, he should complete courses treating of the history and principles of education, so that he may realize what are the aims of educational work, viewed in the light of contemporary thought, and how these aims have been developed. These courses should make him conscious of the supreme ends to keep in view in his teaching, and what should be the relation of his subject to the other work of his pupils and of the school as a whole. Finally, the teacher should complete a course treating of his proper relations to the extra-school interests in the community in which he teaches.

These professional studies may best be pursued as graduate work. The training of the secondary-school teacher will be seriously defective so long as he completes both his academic and his professional studies during his undergraduate course. The courses in education described above should occupy two-thirds of a graduate year. If the candidate spends no time in graduate study, as is the case generally at present, then these professional studies should occupy an equivalent of one-half of his senior year.

5. Requirement of observation and practice. It is universally recognized that effective instruction in medicine, law, engineering, agriculture, and the like requires opportunities for concrete demonstration, and for practice to a limited extent at least. Teaching is no exception in this regard. It is, however, a fact that education, concerned as it is with the exposition of principles for effective instruction, is more seriously handicapped than any other subject in observing the principles it expounds. There is need in the first place of an educational museum, wherein may be displayed specimens of all useful educational appliances, illustrative materials, textbooks, etc. It is imperative, in the second place, that there be in every institution training high-school teachers a fully organized and well-equipped school typifying the school system in which students will teach. This school should be constantly utilized to give definiteness, concreteness, and vitality to instruction in every phase of educational theory and practice. So far as feasible it should be utilized also for the testing of educational theories at present in dispute. Finally, it should be utilized for the purpose of initiating the novice in the practice of his art. It will not ordinarily be possible or desirable to perfect him in technique, but his special needs can be discovered, and he can be put in the way of curing his faults by his own efforts while he is actually in service.

The schools of observation and practice should be regarded as laboratories for the work in education, and in no sense as schools preparatory to the university. They should be under the control of the department of education, which should be responsible for curricula and methods of teaching and discipline. So far as possible the department of education should secure the

active co-operation of all departments of the university having in charge subjects taught in an elementary way in the schools in question. The teachers' courses in the university should be presented with constant reference to the work done in these schools.

54. Wherever it is at all feasible, the university should enter into relations with the high schools in its vicinity so that candidates may have some practice under ordinary public-school conditions. The university should contribute to the salaries of a certain number of teachers in these high schools, to the end that unusually competent persons may be secured, who may serve the university as critics of practice teachers. These critics should be appointed by the university, upon the recommendation of the department of education, and subject to the approval of the board of education in charge of the high school. Practical work of the character indicated should occupy at least one-third of the time which the candidate devotes to professional studies, and it should be regarded as absolutely essential to the efficient training of high-school teachers.

XII (special)

REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS

FREDERICK E. BOLTON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STATE UNIVERSITY

I.

OF IOWA

Requirements for High-School Certification.

II. The University and the College as Training-Schools for High-School Teachers.

III. Standards in Germany.

IV. Standards Suggested for American Schools.

In beginning to prepare this paper an attempt was made to secure thru a questionnaire statistics showing the specific kind of training and experience which the high-school teachers have actually had in a number of typical states. The inadequate returns received made any exhaustive statistical study impossible. In only a few states has any attempt been made to gather such data. Some state superintendents replied in such a way as to indicate their probable feeling that such information would be entirely superfluous. But not until the statistics can be arrayed so as to show the glaring lack of uniformity and how many teachers are below even moderate standards can we expect to improve conditions. School boards and legislatures must be convinced thru unequivocal testimony that woeful deficiencies exist often where the public boasts the most. About buildings and grounds the popular mind may have some intelligent opinions, but the ordinary school public does not discriminate between the expert teacher and the time-server. In the minds of the people, so long as friction is avoided, any teacher is considered a good teacher.

Failing to secure the adequate data concerning the actual preparation of teachers in service, I have investigated the laws of all the states to find the