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When the new plan was introduced, some went to the extreme that all work should be original, and they discarded the textbook altogether. Perhaps this was to be expected but was none the less a mistake. The pupil has not the time to find the proofs for all the material he will need in his future work. Besides it is very important to be able to take in readily a proof given. Even when originals are required it is of great value to direct somewhat as to methods and plans. In problems of construction, I would emphasize the idea of assuming the problem done and then finding such relations as will lead to the correct solution. I would also emphasize certain plans, as, for instance, when the hypotenuse of a right triangle is given as one of the hypotheses, it is always safe, as the first step, to describe a circumference on the hypotenuse as diameter.

Or a little more generally, when the base of a triangle and the angle opposite the base are given, construct the segment of a circle in which the given angle may be inscribed. The fact that the proofs that the circumference and the arc are the loci of the vertices of the triangles are so important and easy, adds to the value of this suggestion. These are of course only examples of many such plans.

These limitations for the mass of pupils leave abundant opportunity, for the full and free exercise of the genius of the best pupils. In my own experience, even with all the helps, suggestions, and devices at my command, while I have seen some good results and had much encouragement, I still have all too frequent occasion to repeat the beatitude: "Blessed is he that expecteth nothing for he shall not be disappointed."

C. HISTORY ROUND TABLE

THE NOTEBOOK: ITS VALUE AND ITS LIMITATIONS

MRS. ADA I. ATKINSON, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, HIGH SCHOOL, OMAHA, NEB. Great difference of opinion prevails among teachers in the secondary schools as to the value of notebooks.

Some of you will maintain that a notebook is a positive hindrance; that a pupil is usually content to put into it what he ought and otherwise would put into his head; that it is not a crutch to support the cripple, but that it actually causes the infirmity it is intended to cure. And others will say that the time spent in making a notebook would be more profitably expended in acquiring a better grasp of the subject-matter; that it is, therefore, a waste of time. Worse than all this, it is said to create in the pupil a dislike of history; that he rages, longing for the day of his deliverance; that the notebook is, to borrow a scientific term, a species of auto-intoxication, a natural and final putting to sleep of all interest in history. And, finally, it is solemnly averred by these advocates of "soft pedagogy" that the notebook is physically injurious; that it has even been known to cause nervous prostration.

These, then, are the main objections: dependence, waste of time, dislike of the subject, physical injury. A formidable list, if valid.

What, now, are the items on the other side of the balance sheet? Of what use are notebooks?

Can it be shown that the notebook fits into the general scheme of public education ? Does it help attain the great object of education? What is that object? Many answers rise in your minds. Summarized, they perhaps come to something like this: "The acquisition of knowledge and the development of power." If inquiry should show that the notebook adds to knowledge and increases power, it may claim a permanent place in the schedule.

In the course of this inquiry its value and its limitations will be incidentally defined. Waiving the discussion of the comparative desirability of knowledge and power, let us look at a properly made notebook.

The table of contents is well ordered in chapters with subdivisions appropriate to the titles; neatly lettered and accurately paged, this table, made from time to time, is, by the end of the year, a complete syllabus of the entire year's work.

Let us see what one of the chapters contains.

It opens with a short, suggestive outline, furnished by the teacher, who wishes the pupil to forsee what his study will make plain to him, and, to guard against one-author narrowness, here is a list of accurate references to both source and secondary authorities. Still further to point the way and give definiteness of assignment and preparation, here are questions set as problems for solution, variously framed to effect their various purposes; some of them grammatical, compelling the pupil to wrest the author's meaning from the text; others cultivate the historical imagination; some develop the setting of the period, leading the pupil to see it as a reaction from previous conditions and circumstances; still others lead to the grouping of facts; and some may even be beyond the ability of the pupil to solve with his present knowledge. The student's first exercise is the making of a text analysis as the basis for his further study. While the paragraph captions of the modern text interfere in a measure with the benefit to be got from this exercise, it may be made helpful by insisting that the pupil supply original expressions for the main heads of the analysis, and by requiring him to express under each of these heads the substance of the author's statements in the pupil's own words. The answers to the questions are next to be worked out; and in the recitation upon them we see that the pupil has gained by comparing his conclusions with those of his classmates; for here are class notes, set down, not in hiccoughing fashion, with dots and dashes to represent what he did not get, but in outline form, intelligently grouped in main and subordinate heads. Could he do this without understanding the matter under discussion, without attention riveted on it? Beside he is thus being taught to discriminate between main and minor points; he learns the beauty of tolerance; he tastes the joy of authoritative assertion. Moreover, by this exercise, that much-tobe-desired condition is secured of recitation by all of the pupils all of the time.

Now come reading-notes from source and narrative history. The author, title, and portion of the work read are accurately noted, and a few clear, concise statements show a summary of the pages covered. These notes are evidence that he has grasped the author's meaning; they have arrested his straying attention; they have compelled him to abandon the pernicious practice, too often indulged in, of penitential repetition of mere words which convey no clear idea to his mind.

From the reading of a simple source he has taken a refreshing draught from the fountain of history and has had a glimpse of how history is written from sources. By comparing the statements of different authorities and measuring them by a source he learns to be critical; he no longer accepts unquestioningly what is asserted; he ceases to be the puppet of the demagogue; the editor can no longer satisfy him with blatant declaration; his mind is broadened, his knowledge enriched; he learns to be accurate; he acquires the habit of authoritative statement; he scorns mere assertion of unsupported opinion.

And next, out of these various materials text analysis, reading-notes, and class notes, he makes his logical, final outline of the period. Having constructed the skeleton, he is ready to clothe it in a short narrative on some well-selected theme which calls into play his newly acquired knowledge, but along fresh lines.

Here is no dull repetition or plagiarism, clumsy and naïve, but clear setting forth in his own words of his own interpretations, sealed with the seal of original language.

The benefit from the narrative is great; it rests on the principle that only when knowledge has been expressed, orally, or in written form, or in thought may it be properly termed knowledge. In this day of large classes, individual oral expression is necessarily limited; the narrative furnishes the next best substitute. By it the pupil is brought face to face with what he knows, and, what is of quite as much importance, with what he does not know. How often we hear children say, "I know it, but I can't say it." Let them see their knowledge and their ignorance in the relentless mirror of expression.

Each page is, we see, headed to show the nature of its contents, and in the margin of the narrative are crisp, concise phrases summarizing each paragraph.

And here at the end is an alphabetical index of the chief events and personages mentioned in the book.

Now do you doubt that the pupil has gained both knowledge and power by the making of his book?

Understand me, no claim is made for the notebook as a panacea. Tact, indeed, and the judgment and skill of the trained teacher should guide the making; and, no doubt, in the hands of the tyro more harm than good would result; but, properly used, the notebook becomes of manifest benefit to the pupil who sees in it a means of apprehending and assimilating knowledge not the mere exploitation of a fad.

It is a great mistake to suppose that young people do not enjoy doing a hard thing; they like it, and are proud of their ability to do it. Moreover, as with the body, so with the mind, exercise whets appetite. And it is this tough fiber which the citizen of these United States must develop in order that he may combat and conquer the difficulties which confront him at the present time. Even to the superficial observer the times look threatening; to a student of history they are big with danger. It is the solemn duty of those who have intrusted to them the shaping of the character, the training of the intellect of the youth of this great nation of ours, to prepare and fit them for their civic duties.

I dare to cherish the hope that by this earnest conscientious, painstaking, loving work of making notebooks, these children are learning the fundamentals of citizenship; thoroness, accurracy, breadth of view; the power of neatness; the power to analyze; the power to construct; the power of sustained expression; the power of system; the power to carry out a plan; the power to look beneath the surface of an event for its cause; the power of suspending judgment; the power of patience; the power of efficiency; the power of truth.

The notebook is of positive use in the acquisition of knowledge and the development of power. Its limitations are the metes and bounds of trained judgment and common

sense.

THE PLACE OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL

CURRICULUM

E. I. MILLER, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICO, CAL.

The why of history teaching is a prerequisite to the what, the how, and the how much of history teaching. That is, it is essential first to know why history should be taught at all, what educational results are to be secured from teaching it, before we can know what part or how much of the limitless field to select and how it shall be presented to the students. Therefore the first thing is to determine what are the educational reasons for teaching history in the high school. The first part of this paper will be devoted to a brief consideration of this question.

It must be said that in some respects the reasons for teaching history are the same for the high schools as for the elementary school, and for the university. Of course there is some difference in the degree that these aims apply to the different grades, but the same ideas are or ought to be considered.

All subjects of the public-school course are in that course because they afford information or give a facility which will be useful in life, or a subject may give both information and facility. In some subjects the emphasis is on the information, in others on the facility. But the information or the facility gained in the one subject cannot be carried over into another, unless that other is similar in some way. That is, a power of reasoning in one set of ideas does not imply a power of reasoning in another set, unless that other set is in some way like the first. Reasoning-power in mathematics does not imply reasoning-power in biology or in history; nor does the reverse hold good. However, reasoning-power in

history would to a certain degree, imply reasoning-power in other social sciences, as sociology, economics, etc. Without further discussion of this point, then, it is a legitimate conclusion from the foregoing statements, that one subject cannot wholly, if to any degree, take the place of another subject; each contributes its own particular thing to the complete development of the individual Without claiming superiority of history over other subjects in all respects, and without denying to other branches the educational values claimed for them, let us ask what are the educational reasons for teaching history?

First, it furnishes much information of a practical kind. History is the record of what man has done individually and collectively, of the motives and forces that have operated to direct human actions, of the results of those motives and forces upon the human race. Can it be that the study of such records can be, as Herbert Spencer suggests, for amusement only and not for instruction?

Returning to the statement that history furnishes much information of a practical kind, is it not of value to the young mind to have it add to its own direct experiences, the experiences of individual and race in the past? Is it not desirable to enlarge the mental horizon by experience not directly had by each individual? Is it not desirable to teach the individual those facts which help him to understand something of what he is, why he is what he is, and how he became such as a member of society? Is it not worth while for the civilized person to know something of the process thru which civilization was developed? Is it not a thing of value for the individual to know something of how the commonest things and institutions about him came to be? What they mean and why they are of the form they are? All these questions may be answered by a quotation from the great thinker, Lecky, who says of history, "It is one of the best schools for that kind of reasoning which is most useful in practical life. It teaches men to weigh conflicting probabilities, to estimate degrees of evidence, to form sound judgment of the value of authorities. Reasoning is taught more by actual practice than by a priori methods."

Life is a series of problems which as a rule each individual must solve for himself. The facts to be considered in these problems are the acts and motives of men as individuals and in groups. How shall the individual be taught the facts and how to reason upon them? He can and must learn some of this by direct contact, by experience; but shall we not broaden his experiences and prepare him for a safer adjustment of himself by giving him the experience of others, and of the past? How else can the race make progress but by using the lessons of past experience? But the study of these past experiences is one phase of history. History deals with man's past experiences, it shows and explains something of present forces, it points to future tendencies. Certainly, then, the more of this kind of history that is taught, the sounder the judgment that will result. The more the individual will gain experience and power to meet and solve the problems of practical life.

What better way to make good citizens than to teach the youth practice in knowing and reasoning upon facts connected with government and the duties of the citizen toward that government? The facts of history are valuable. They deal with practical everyday life. They give practice in solving problems everyone must, to some extent, attempt to solve. A wide acquaintance with the right kind of history is a valuable preparation for citizenship. It is because the facts of history are so similar to those of everyday life that history lays such strong claims to giving information and training that will be of the greatest assistance in real life.

Second, history is a means of setting before students high types of character, and of giving them high ideals. It is character-building. Keeping high types of character and high ideals before the students will not make all of the students pattern their lives after them, but this method will do as much as any other to accomplish that end.

Third, it is a culture subject. Culture is knowledge of the best the past has produced. Along with this knowledge go refining influences of various kinds. By teaching knowledge of the habits, customs, institutions of other people, the ideals which lie back of them, and the struggles which these people have undergone to establish and maintain these things'

a sympathy with the progressive movements of the past and of people other than our own, is secured. To quote from the report of the Committee of Seven, "Many a teacher has found that, in dealing with the great and noble acts and struggles of bygone men, he has succeeded in reaching the inner nature of the real boys and girls of his classes, and has given them impulses and honorable prejudices that are the surest sources of permanent and worthy refinment."

Fourth, it is a means of teaching patriotism. It is not the only way of teaching patriotism, but it is one way. Real, enduring patriotism is the outgrowth of an understanding and appreciation of the trials and sacrifices that made possible our free institutions and the privileges and opportunities they afford. As Professor Hinsdale once said, "Study of the times that tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of enduring trial.” A little of such appreciation is possible in the upper grammar grades, but it is in the high school chiefly that this must be accomplished.

Fifth, history is a good moral teacher. It affords practical concrete illustrations, which may be so presented as to clearly point the moral, but not take the form of preaching. The choice of material and the method of presentation will do much to determine whether history gives moral lessons or not, but it would be difficult for even the worst teacher to obscure the great moral progress of the race. The advance in civilization is a moral advance. Any study of history must reveal moral progress as illustrated in rules of war in treatment of defective classes, in the abolition of slavery, etc. The student will have gotten little from his study of history if he has not seen these and similar evidences of moral advance.

Sixth, history touches many interests. It deals with people of all ages and of all times; it shows all phases of activity, political, religious, social, industrial, etc., and therefore, if fairly well presented, it appeals to a large number of people.

Ere this it must have become evident that the kind of high school in mind is the one which is really preparing its students to be good citizens, which is aiming to give that general intelligence and those strong sterling qualities and virtues that characterize our highest types of manhood and womanhood. No other kind of high school has any right to exist.

A high-school course in history, arranged and carried out so as to secure the results just suggested, is perfectly practicable. Doubtless most of our high schools follow these aims in part, some of the best ones completely.

Now, let us see how the course in modern history as a part of the history program is, or may be, in harmony with the aims just stated.

The usual meaning of the term "modern history" as covering a period of European history from somewhere near the end of the fifteenth century down to the present, is here adopted. This paper does not depart from the commonly accepted period nor regions in what is to be considered as modern history; but it does contend that the subject-matter of modern history should be determined by its adaptability to securing the ends which have just been set up as the aims of history work in the high school.

Both the time and the country in which the school is located determine to some degree the nature of the course in history, because the ideals of education differ from time to time, and from country to country. But it has been assumed that the American high school is the one under discussion here; hence the character of the course in modern history must be determined from the point of view of the American high school. The reasons for teaching history in the high school as before stated, will be taken up in order, and the place of modern history in reference to them discussed.

First, does modern history furnish information of a practical kind? Leaving out of consideration American history as a part of modern history, because that has a special year in the program, modern history gives the foundation for an understanding of present-day American institutions. It is today an almost universally accepted idea among educators that American history and government are essentials of every school course, because of

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