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their simplicity, but fundamental in importance. In the first place the end and purpose of our work is quickly to arouse the Indian to a material awakening by placing within his grasp opportunities for learning a trade of most usefulness to himself and to his people, and of his own choosing.

Careful attention is given to the shop. This should be roomy, well lighted, and ventilated. A high ceiling of from twelve to fifteen feet is desirable, and this and the walls should preferably be finished with brick or wood; or, if plaster is used, it should be a cement plaster. Lime plaster is easily damaged when struck by a piece of iron or timber. A light buff tint with a five-foot border of the same color, intensified by the addition of a little red, has proven a very satisfactory color. It gives a maximum of light and seems to be restful to the eyes.

Each student should be supplied with a definite place to work and wherever possible should be given a place, under lock and key, to keep his "kit" of tools. This will create in the student a pride in his equipment and a desire to take care of the tools intrusted to him. The indiscriminate use of the same edge tools by all precludes the probability that they will be taken care of by anyone in particular.

In all shopwork a definite course of study and work should be mapped out. No instructor can, with impunity, do his work in a shambling, harum-scarum manner, trusting to fickle chance or the inspiration of the moment that the ultimate result will be satisfactory, and therefore doing no planning for the morrow or the month to come. Every student should have reasonable assurance before commencing on his work of the ground he is expected to cover. This can best be done by the combined use of (1) a printed statement, (2) a series of drawings showing the various steps in the work, and (3) a set of models showing the work itself skilfully and accurately executed. Such a procedure is not only highly important for the immediate information and enlightenment of the student, but, if system is to prevail, and a large number of students are handled, it is really indispensable.

Students are too

In all work, economy of materials should be insisted on. apt to become careless in this regard, spoiling a large board in order to cut off a small piece, or cutting from a long iron bar, when the necessary material could be had by examining the "scrap pile." Boys get the idea-and in many instances grown-ups do the same-that the government defrays the expenses from its supposedly inexhaustible treasure store, and that consequently it makes no particular difference whether they waste or save. It is an evil habit, and, begun early in life, would be difficult to eradicate later on in maturity. This matter is of especial importance in Indian schools. Indian boys and girls are naturally wasteful and unless curbed in their youth will stick to the unfrugal ways of their fathers. Each industrial department should have a "scrap pile" and students can soon be taught economical ways of using material. When old material is taken out of buildings and is not decayed, use can be made of it on the farm, or for outside improvements. I have taken

this up at length because practical lessons in economy are invaluable to anyone, and especially to the Indian.

In carrying on industrial instruction in Indian schools two phases of the work must be taken into consideration: (1) In every shop, of every Indian school, productive work with a real market value must be done; repairs on buildings and the school plant cannot be neglected except with great risk and attendant loss; equipment is urgently needed from time to time. We believe that a valuable opportunity in application is presented and a fine lesson is learned by students in being required to do this work themselves. Their education thus rises above the misnomer of a forced gratuity. They have really put forth some legitimate personal effort to gain it. (2) Instruction must be given regularly and systematically so that the students will become something more than imitators and automatons--will in fact become thinking workmen, ever browsing about for the new, elevating themselves and their people. Such men, with careful training, prove a blessing to the craft to which they belong, and raise still higher the honored name and calling of carpenter, blacksmith, machinist, mason, farmer, because of the lives they live and the works they perform.

Where mechanics with no previous teaching experience must be employed as instructors and, where instruction and production occupy a place side by side, our plan at Haskell may be of interest and hold something of suggestion.

All students work one half-day in the workshop or on the farm and devote the other half-day to classroom exercises. Out of the twenty hours per week in the shop three periods of one and a half hours each are set apart for active instruction. During this time by talks, demonstrations, or individual work, instruction is given in the principles and practices of the trade.

A course of study and practice has been evolved which combines by practical exercises the essentials of the trade. We feel that this plan offers all the additional pedagogic advantages presented by a course of manual training in the public school. After the first few exercises in the use of tools, each succeeding exercise presents a new principle to be mastered or something tangible to be done. We do not rest content with teaching the making of a lapjoint, a mortise and tenon joint, a dovetailed joint, a splice joint, et cetera. Rather, we advance a bit farther and take a decisive step. After the pupil is able to make a joint he is immediately taught the application of that knowledge and skill by making a useful article of furniture, a household utensil, or some part of a house. Thus, he is daily receiving practical lessons in home-building. And so with welding, upsetting or bending at the forge, cutting or stitching in the shoeshop, chipping, filing, or turning by the apprentices in the machineshop.

When the period of instruction is over and the students are detailed to the regular tasks of productive activity, the instructor keeps in mind the advancement of the pupil. If a boy during the previous lesson has been engaged on an exercise in planing he is later given productive work to surface which will

give him experience and training in the use and care of the plane. If, perchance, the boy has been having exercise work in nailing and cross-cut sawing, productive work in laying pine floors, or sheathing the side of the house is given him to do. By the next lesson the students have necessarily made sufficient progress so that with rapidity the next advanced step in the trade is undertaken. Such a course is followed in all trades instruction.

By conducting the work along the lines I have mentioned, rapid and substantial progress can be made. This is not a highly colored picture or a silverlined theory of impracticability. The thing is practicable and is worked out each day of the school year at Haskell. Of course I understand that such a procedure would be difficult in public schools where of necessity the time element must be considered, and where no productive work as such is carried on. But even there it would be well to ponder such a course. Is there not right here a possible suggestion for public-school work in the higher grades? Should the motor faculties be trained abstractly, and with no thought whatever to indispensable, practical ends? Is the child of the white less in need of a training in the practical things of life than the offspring of the red?

From what I have already said you no doubt gain the central idea I wish to convey. Vitilize the instruction. Let it deal with the real things which the student must know and face when his school days are over. The teaching of principles is vastly important; but by all means, teach their practical application, or they will become meaningless and soon be forgotten. Let down the cumbersome barriers that shut out the practical from view and get down to the bedrock work of instruction.

From time to time rather spasmodic attempts have been made in some of the larger non-reservation schools to give instruction in mechanical drawing. From what I have been able to learn the results from these efforts have not been entirely satisfactory. And I believe I know the reason. Students usually enroll in Indian schools for a period of but three years. Local conditions limit the time devoted to drawing-work to two or three hours per week. The education possessed by these students is of a very elementary nature. Their knowledge of arithmetic is exceedingly limited.

In many of the schools where drawing has been taught the pupils commenced on instrumental drawing. A period of time was then devoted to rather abstruse problems in geometrical drawing and this was followed by abstract random work in orthographic projection. What had been accomplished? The student had just time to get a smattering of these branches when his term was up and he left school. What he did learn did not increase the student's practical usefulness. As a bread-winner it did not give him additional equipment. The drawing, for instance, was not applied to his trade and consequently had no real significance to him.

I do not wish to intimate that a draftsman need not be familiar with this foundation work, but I must frankly say that it is not our intention to train draftsmen. As with the so-called professions this should be left to individual,

initiative, and private support. Our end is accomplished so far as this subject is concerned when the student can make a simple working-drawing in pencil, can block out roughly any work which he wishes done, and can thoroly understand an ordinary plan when placed in his hands to execute in the shop. The Indian boy's education has not been slighted if he is unable to paint a beautiful picture or make an elaborate architectural sketch rendered in ink and color. Simple colorwork can be taught, and is taught, but the best place for instruction in this is in the classroom.

We have made some progress toward the solution of this problem at Haskell. The drawing-work is divided into sections composed of students. from the various trades departments. Each section devotes two periods each week to the work. The carpenters form one section and the other sections are made up of blacksmiths, masons, wheelwrights, painters, engineers, and machinists. The work given each class varies somewhat with the trade the pupils are learning.

In the beginning each section is called together in the drawing-room and class recitations are given. This work comprises an explanation and study of the rule and its use, the difference between a picture and a mechanical drawing, the blocking-out of a wooden block with square corners, then of rectangular and other shapes. The students are gradually led to understand the plan, elevation, and sections, and learn to label and dimension working-drawings. All this work, mind you, is at the blackboard before the eyes of the class and students are called upon to explain what they have done and the work is criticized by the other students. Intense interest is aroused and the students learn to make dimension drawings of simple objects which they have executed in the shop.

The instructor now gathers the pupils around his table and shows them just how to proceed to make a mechanical drawing with instruments by executing one himself. The instruments are brought forward, their correct use shown and the names given. These names are always written on the board and the pupils are required to copy them. This fixes the information more permanently in their minds. The boys are then sent to their individual tables to begin work. This beginning is the crucial time as habits acquired in the early stages may be permanent obstructions to good work later on. The drawings are made from models, each shop using actual work made by the students. From now on our own experience has proved that rapid progress and substantial improvement result.

This instruction in drawing has practically revolutionized our shopwork. New interest has been manifested by the students. They do not complain of the monotony of the work as they once did, and where formerly anxious to hear the sound of the whistle which ushered in the time of rest they now do extra work during their own time. It has also been the means of systematizing and unifying the course of work.

As I said in opening this paper there must be unity and correlation between

the classroom and the shop. Let the literary classes visit the shop with the teacher so that the pupils can see the industries at close range. Let them see the shoeing of a horse, the ironing of a wheel, the processes of furniture-making, stone-cutting, and brick-laying. I believe the day is coming when the workshop will be assigned a place wall to wall with the schoolroom, and rather than detract from the efficiency of either this partnership will lift them both to render greater service in the common cause of educating the children of men.

RELATION OF PRIMITIVE HANDICRAFT TO PRESENT-DAY EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS

RUBY M. HODGE, TEACHER OF MANUAL TRAINING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES,

CAL.

Two years ago at the meeting of this association, Superintendent Maxwell of New York city said that the goal of American education was the ideal of developing the highest individual and social efficiency of each citizen; or, in other words, the making of good citizens of the boys and girls who are intrusted to our care in the public schools. The fundamental basis of good citizenship is a trained intelligence to earn a livelihood, to become a respectable selfsupporting member of society.

Let us look at some of the material from which we, as teachers, are to make good "American citizens." First, the normal American-born child— he is very easily disposed of by the curriculum of the public schools; second, the immigrant from Norway, Sweden, Germany, and the other countries of the northern part of Europe, those from southern Europe, the child from across the border-line of Mexico, the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, all members of our public schools; third, the sub-normal child, or the child whose mind. has not developed in the same ratio as his body; fourth, the physically deficient; fifth, the feeble-minded or mentally deficient; then the deaf; the children who are obliged to leave school early to earn a living; and, last but not least, the children of nature, the Indians.

Let us consider the immigrants for a moment. The people that come from northern Europe are more easily assimilated than those from the southern part. Their customs and modes of living correspond somewhat to ours. They have considerable freedom in their home government, and readily adapt themselves to our civilization.

The people of southern Europe, illiterate, accustomed to tyranny, low in their standard of living, gather themselves together in our large cities and factory towns under conditions inimical alike to morals, to physical well-being, and to their intellectual advancement.

Closely allied to these in customs and habits are the Mexicans, especially the Cholos. These are our special problem in southern California.

The homes of all of these people are simply places of shelter and, sometimes, not even that. From these homes come the children to the public schools. Fortunately for them, the larger number enter the kindergarten. In some

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