are illiterate men who are useful citizens, strong in their regard for law and order, in spite of their lack of formal knowledge. So long as such examples of the lack of correlation between education and character exist the educator who is trying to control human nature thru the school must take note of a problem which questions the assumption that a mere intellectual training is adequate for character-building.

The modern school cannot train for character unless it trains all those qualities or aspects of man's character which influence his conduct. There is clear evidence that in many cases the American public school is a merely intellectual institution. The reaction against such a condition of affairs is indicated in certain new tendencies appearing in our school practice. On the one hand, the school is using expression and action far more than it did a decade or two ago. This is noted in the rise into importance of such subjects as manual training, drawing, music, and composition. On the other hand, the school is more and more taking count of the emotional elements which appear in school life as an opportunity for influencing the child's character. This latter tendency may be noted in the additional use of such incidental influences upon character as schoolroom decorations, exercises for holiday occasions, the organization of clubs, and societies for the athletic, social, literary, and disciplinary interests of the children. Perhaps of the two changes in our recent history, the tendencies that influence the emotional life are less obvious. This is to be expected. The emotions are far more subtle than ideas or actions. In consequence it would be exceedingly valuable to speak of the emotional life, its characteristics, and the methods and opportunities for its control. The modern psychologist recognizes that the emotions play differently upon human life. On the one hand, there are those feelings which have a purely internal significance, which operate as a recreative force in human life. These are the aesthetic emotions, which are everywhere manifest in music, the plastic arts, and literature. On the other hand, there are those emotions the significance of which is mostly external and social. These vital emotions, pride, anger, indignation, ambition, sympathy, jealousy, etc., have usually a direct reference to one's relationships to other human beings. They are the feelings which are at the back of social progress and social order. If the school is to be an instrument of control for the purpose of making good citizens of men and women, the vital or social emotions mentioned are among the most important elements in the school life. It is with these in particular that we are concerned in this discussion.

The function of the emotions is to be found in their stimulating quality. They drive the human being into action; they reinforce a line of action already in progress. Without substantial emotions a man is likely to be pale and colorless in the world's affairs. As a man without sympathy, he will not respond with quick sensitiveness to private or public wrong. He will count for little, therefore, in social co-operations. As a man without pride, he will in the face of the obstacles of life fail to maintain those standards of excel

lency in behavior which he has assumed in the days of his youth when idealistic dreams builded rapidly under the protective influence of family and school life; as a man without ambition to reach higher things than he now holds, he will contribute little to the world's progress. It is emotion which gives fire and force to human life, which, cultivated above their instinctive basis, drives a human being into world-action, to make him a force for good or a force for evil.

If the emotions are the foundation of character, its primitive force, so to speak, the intellectual factors represent the instrumentalities for its direction and control. This is perfectly clear when we realize that sympathy and anger are neither virtuous nor vicious in themselves. A sympathetic man may protect an erring friend to the dissolution of a public law. A man who may be righteously angry at an offense to an unknown fellow may be the means of checking some great social evil. It is necessary that a man's emotional nature be directed to proper ends and to proper means. It must not be assumed, however, that intellectual control as represented in ideas and in human knowledge generally speaking is of much use unless the emotional qualities which are to be controlled by them are present in the human make-up.

The analysis of certain literary characters or of certain familiar figures in human history may shed light on the relative part of feeling and thinking in human action. The difference between the Sherlock Holmes of Conan Doyle's creation, and the Raffles of Mr. Hornung's imagination is a difference not so much of intellectual equipment as of emotional devotion. Each has amassed an immense body of knowledge, with regard to the habits and the lives of people of wealth, the police, and the community of crime. Each is quick in the observation of the criminal situations, and rapid in making deductions which are the basis for the next move. Each is trained mentally as well as physically to perform similar deeds under equally trying situations. But in human estimate these men stand at opposite poles: one is a thief living at the expense of society; the other is a public servant giving his support to the agencies of order. One is devoted to the ideas of the criminal class; the other is devoted to the protection of the better ideals of society in general. They are different in devotion, which means they are different in the organization of their respective emotional lives. A Raffles with a different arrangement of prides, ambitions, and sympathies might have been a Sherlock Holmes and a Sherlock Holmes might have been a Raffles.

A similar contrast is afforded in the heroic conduct of George Washington and the treason of Benedict Arnold. Both men had been, up to the time of Arnold's treason, men of high executive and military power. Both had suffered somewhat from the unappreciative and perhaps ungrateful attitude of Congress, but in the face of the trying circumstance the devotion of George Washington to the cause of colonial liberty was strong enough to withstand any counter feelings, while the devotion of Benedict Arnold was not sufficient to hold against the petty bitternesses and the pique which made havoc with his

loyalty. There were intellectual differences to be sure between these two great figures, but the fundamental differences are to be found in the emotional mainsprings of their respective characters.

So the analysis might go further. The instances in our ordinary life of weak human character would only reinforce the importance of the emotional element in human life. Everywhere about us are types of inefficiency which bear out this suggestion. There is the "impulsivist," the man of large and strong emotions with little intellectual control, who is constantly exploding in the face of every obstacle or difficult situation. There is the "sentimentalist," a person of much feeling but with a misdirected control of his sentiments which are constantly being devoted to things which a broad intellectual life would reveal as trivial. There is the intellectual type so similar to Shakspere's Hamlet, who sees so many sides of the truth that every tendency to act is checked by some counter perception. Again, there is "the academic mind" so unendurable to the man of large public affairs, who persists in discussing every fact from the standpoint of its theoretic interest as truth, disregarding the irrelevancy of many facts in a given present and crucial practical situation. All of these are types of weakness in life to be explained by defects in the relationship of emotional and intellectual elements.

In the school's business of making men and women who will be sane and wholesome, responsive and vigorous, it is clear that the directions of control must not be restricted to the intellectual but must include the emotional as well. Three things must be done with our fund of feeling: (1) Certain emotions at one time useful in the preservation of individual life must be for the most part inhibited. Envy and jealousy and certain other influences which were once effective in man's primitive time have little place in our modern life, and these the schools should attempt to stamp out irrevocably. (2) Certain emotions not overimportant in our past history which are now becoming more and more dominant in our civilization need to be strengthened. There is a larger place for the development of sympathy and love and the other co-operative emotions than there has ever been before. These the school should aim to develop with all its power. (3) There are certain other emotions which are neither to be completely inhibited nor completely discouraged. They get their value in social life largely in terms of the ideas to which they are attached. Anger is wrong as it is associated with narrow and personal, selfish ideas and situations. It is right as it becomes indignation toward some interference with personal purity and social stability. Here the school's main responsibility is to see that these feelings are rightly connected.

In the development of an emotion there are three distinct ways by which it may be fostered: (a) The first and primary means is thru the force of personal example with its resulting suggestion and imitation. Children are the constant imitators of the men and women about them. Fear in the teacher breeds fear in the child. An ambitious child is more likely to be found in an ambitious community. It is at this point that the teacher's personality,

strong in its emotional suggestion, becomes a large factor in influencing character. (b) Once a feeling is present in a child's nature either by instinct or by suggestion it will be deepened by the constant recall of ideas which have connected with them the particular feeling desired. To speak constantly and admiringly of Washington, Lincoln, Roosevelt, and others, who have been the impersonations of social sympathy and personal fearlessness, is only to deepen sympathy for humanity and individual courage. The second method, therefore, of strengthening an emotion is to recall it again and again by speaking of situations or persons with which that emotion is habitually associated. (c) The third method is to use expression and action. However fearful we may be, if we assume the demeanor and the physical attitude of courage we tend to stamp out fear and to strengthen the feeling which habitually goes. with the given physical response. The truth of the Lange-James theory of emotions for the teacher is that a child should be given every possible opportunity to act out in school life the desirable emotions which a chance situation may stimulate. All of these methods are indirect. We get at the emotion by first getting hold of something else. The three ways are, first, the use of example; second, the recall of ideas associated with emotions, and third, the encouragement of expression which is appropriate to certain types of feeling.

The opportunities in school life for emotional control are many. Discipline as opposed to instruction offers the largest opportunity. It is because the emotions play so large a part in a disciplinary situation that it is more subtle and more difficult to deal with. The average child who needs severe discipline is hard to deal with pre-eminently because he is mastered by his own feeling. It is difficult to use moral suasion on the instant because it is difficult to get the child, immersed in his own emotion, to give attention to such examples, ideas, and actions as might suggest the counter and more desirable feelings, which the teacher is after.

Classroom instruction, which usually deals with the purely intellectual elements, offers its own opportunities, however. History, biography, and civics are subjects which give large opportunity for the teacher, as the representative of social opinion, to associate his personal emotional estimates with the ideas that come under discussion. Literature, which is usually spoken of as a subject affording opportunity for training moral character, has many emotional elements but they should not be used directly for controlling the social conduct of children. Following the classification given earlier in the address the emotions here used are aesthetic and recreative rather than vital and social. If character comes from literature, as it does, it is as a by-product rather than as the result of a direct aim and effort.

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF ORGANIZED CHILD STUDY IN AMERICA TO EDUCATIONAL THEORY AND PRACTICE, AS APPLIED TO GRAMMAR GRADES

FLETCHER B. DRESSLAR, DEPT. OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

There is no time for a thoro discussion of this topic. I must content myself with a mere summary of the more important results, and a few suggestions touching their significance in our care of the children of the upper grades.

1. Careful observation on the growth of children by Bowditch, Boaz, and many others, has brought to light the fact that most girls of twelve have reached a maturity comparable with boys of about fourteen, and that along with this superiority in bodily development there is a superiority in mental power and self-control.

The educational corollary of this knowledge has been put into practice rather tardily, I fear. In the upper grammar grades under women teachers, and in the first year of the high school, the standards set for excellence in classwork are standards measured more by what girls are able to do than by the ability of the boys. Mentally as well as physically girls are, at this period, almost two years in advance of the boys, and it is unfair to expect the same degree of carefulness, neatness, and finish from the boys, easily obtained from the girls. Many discouragements and dismissals or withdrawals have directly resulted from this unfair measurement of the boys. It may be that just here we will discover the weakest place in our system of co-education.

2. Many studies dealing with the motor abilities of children have emphasized anew and enlarged in detail the peculiar abilities and inabilities of the children in muscular adjustments. These studies have brought to our attention in a forcible way that it is a very easy matter for a teacher to expect children to do what they are physically unprepared to do. They have further shown that growth in physical training and manual training in all its forms should emphasize first and fundamentally the larger and coarser muscular adjustments, and that we should adjust our courses of study accordingly.

3. As a result of various and extended investigations it has been found that many children are mentally slow and stupid on account of physical defects within the power of the teacher or physician to correct. The difficulties growing out of defective eyes or ears have been brought to our attention in so many striking ways that a large percentage of the teachers in our elementary schools today are consciously striving to organize the work in such a way and to so condition the children that abnormalities will not be engendered, or that those which do exist may be counteracted and corrected. As a result, our schoolhouses are better lighted, our books are better printed, defective vision is corrected by proper glasses, those who are deaf are more carefully directed, and in many other ways the work of the school is so ordered as to