Kullak and Dehn and in Weimar under Liszt; made several tours in Germany, France, and Russia, and directed the Euterpe concerts in Leipzig (1860–62). In 1865 he became Von Bülow's successor as director of the concerts of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Berlin; from 1867 to 1887 was intendant of the Royal Theatre in Hanover, and from 1887 to 1895 of that in Weimar. The most important of his works are compositions for the pianoforte, the best known being a trio in G minor and a concerto in F sharp minor. To these should be added a cantata, Christnacht, for a double choir and orchestra; Frühlingsphantasie, for orchestra; a choral symphony, In den Alpen; a symphony in C minor; a symphonic tone poem, Manfred; and a sextet for strings. An opera, Der Corsar, has remained manuscript.

A

In

BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORFF, brôn'särt fôn shěl'len-dôrf, PAUL (1832-91). Prussian general, born in Danzig. He entered the army in 1849, became lieutenant colonel in 1869, and was attached to the headquarters of the army during the Franco-Prussian War, serving as chief of division. Upon the capitulation of Sedan he was sent to the fortress to open the first negotiations with Napoleon III. 1883 he became Minister of War. It was he who prepared the measure providing for an increase of the standing army (1887). During his term of office the repeating rifle was introduced into the infantry branch of the service, new pension laws were enacted, and the conditions of military service were modified. He wrote the following works: Ein Rückblick auf die taktischen Rückblicke (2d ed., 1870; Eng. trans. by H. A. Ouvry, London, 1871); Der Dienst des Generalstabes (1876; 4th ed., 1905; Eng. trans. under the title of The Duties of the General Staff, by W. A. H. Hare, 1877; new ed., 1905).

BRONTE US (Gk. Bpovraios, brontaios, thundering, from ẞpovrh, bronte, thunder). An epithet of Zeus as god of lightning and thunder. See JUPITER.

BRONTE, bron'tâ. A city in the Province of Catania, Sicily, at the western base of Mount Etna, between the great lava streams of 1651 and 1843; 2600 feet above the sea, and 34 miles northwest of Catania (Map: Italy, J 10). The principal manufactures are paper and woolen goods, and the adjacent valley of the Simeto produces large quantities of grain and wine. The town is celebrated chiefly for its connection with Admiral Nelson, who was created Duke of Bronte by the Neapolitan government in 1799. Pop. (commune), 1881, 16,577; 1901, 20,366; 1911, 18,260.

BRON'TË, ANNE. See BRONTË, CHARLOTTE. BRONTË, CHARLOTTE (1816-55). An English novelist, born at Thornton, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, April 21, 1816. Her father, Patrick Brontë, a clergyman of Irish descent (the name is said to have been originally Prunty), removed, with five young children and an invalid wife, from Thornton to Haworth, in the same county, in 1820. Anne, the sixth and last child, was born the same year. Soon after the arrival Mrs. Brontë died; so that Charlotte, trying hard in afterlife, could but dimly recall the remembrance of her mother. Her father, eccentric and solitary in his habits, was ill fitted to replace a mother's love; and though their mother's elder sister, Miss Branwell, and later

the faithful servant "Tabby," entered the household, the children were left much to themselves. When Charlotte was eight years old she was sent with three of her sisters to Cowan's Bridge School, between Leeds and Kendal, which, whether deservedly or not, had an unfortunate notoriety conferred upon it 25 years later in the pages of Jane Eyre. The two elder sistersMaria and Elizabeth-falling dangerously ill and dying a few days after their removal thence, Charlotte and Emily were taken out of the school. In 1831 Charlotte was sent to Miss Wooler's school at Roehead, between Leeds and Huddersfield, where her remarkable talents were duly appreciated by her kind instructress, and a friendship was formed with some of her fellow pupils that lasted throughout life. A few years later she returned to Miss Wooler's school as teacher there, and she had, soon after this, some sorrowful experiences as governess in one of the two families where she found employment. It was with a view of better qualifying themselves for the task of teaching that Charlotte and Emily went to Brussels in 1842 and took up their abode in a pensionnat. When Charlotte returned home for good in 1844, a new shadow darkened the gloomy Yorkshire parsonage-her father's sight was declining fast, and her only brother was becoming an inebriate.

It now seemed plain that school keeping could never be a resource, and the sisters-Charlotte, Emily, and Anne-turned their thoughts to literature. Their volume of poems was published in 1846, their names being veiled under those of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell; but it met with little or no attention. Charlotte's next venture was a prose tale, The Professor, and while it was passing slowly and heavily from publisher to publisher, Jane Eyre was making progress. Jane Eyre appeared in 1847 and took the public by storm. It was felt that a fresh hand, making new harmonies, was thrown over the old instrument. Henceforward Charlotte Brontë had a "twofold life, as author and woman." Over the latter the clouds closed thicker and thicker. Mr. Brontë had indeed recovered his sight; but Emily, the sister Charlotte so intensely loved, died in 1848. Her only brother, Branwell, also died in the same year; Anne, the youngest of the family, following in 1849. Charlotte was left alone with her aged father, in a dreary home among the graves. Nevertheless her energy never flagged. Shirley, begun soon after the appearance of Jane Eyre, was published in 1849; and Villette, written under the frequent pressure of bad health and low spirits, came out in 1853. In the spring of 1854 Charlotte Brontë was married to her father's curate, the Rev. A. Nicholls, who had long known and loved her. It is a relief to find that a little sunshine was permitted to the close of a hitherto clouded life. It was, however, but brief. She died March 31, 1855.

All the Brontës possessed ability akin to genius.-BRANWELL (1817-48), weakened by dissipation, left a few poems, among which are occasional lines showing the Brontë spirit. -ANNE (1820-49) died too young to achieve fame, but there is nothing commonplace about her two novels, Agnes Grey and Wildfell Hall. -The portrait of EMILY (1818-48) is drawn by her sister in Shirley. Having in mind, doubtless, her Wuthering Heights (1847) and her poems, Matthew Arnold declared that for passion, vehemence, and grief, Emily Brontë had

had no equal since Byron. Charlotte was, perhaps, less vehement, but her novels come from an aching heart. And having seen more of the world, she possessed the greater insight into character. In execution the work of all the sisters is faulty; but Charlotte's is less so than that of the others. The standard Life of Charlotte Brontë (London, 1857), by Elizabeth Gas kell, has been supplemented by C. K. Shorter's Charlotte Brontë and her Circle (London, 1896). Consult also: Life and Works of the Sisters Brontë, with preface by Mrs. H. Ward and an introduction and notes to the life by Shorter (7 vols., London and New York, 1900); Reid, Charlotte Brontë (London, 1877); L. Stephen, "Essay," in Hours in a Library (3d series, London, 1879); A. Birrell, Life, with bibliography (London, 1887); Robinson, Emily Bronte (Boston, 1883); Leyland, The Brontë Family, with special reference to Patrick Branwell Brontë (London, 1886); Shorter, The Brontës (London, 1907); May Sinclair, The Three Brontës (London, 1912; New York, 1913). In the publications of the Brontë Society will be found a mass of material of service to students of Charlotte Brontë-material bearing upon her own works and life, and upon the lives and characters of her gifted sister, her eccentric father, and her unfortunate brother.

In the London Times for July 29, 1913, was published a number of curious letters which passed between Charlotte Brontë and one Heger, a Frenchman who had taught her in Brussels. This man served as the original of the hero of Villette, who contributes so largely to the interest of that novel. The episode reflected in these letters throws a new sidelight upon the story in question.

BRON'TOGRAPH (Gr. ẞpovrh, bronte, thunder+ypápei, graphein, to write). An instrument, and the record made by an instrument for recording the phenomena attending thunderstorms. See BRONTOMETER.

BRONTOM/ETER (Gk. Spovrh, bronte, thunder μéтpov, metron, measure). An instrument for studying the phenomena of thunderstorms, a "thunderstorm measurer," devised by G. J. Symons and built for him in 1890 by Richard Frères of Paris, who worked out all the constructional details. By means of seven pens the instrument permits of recording (1) a time scale, (2) wind velocity, (3) rainfall by hundredths of an inch, (4) individual lightning flashes, (5) duration of each thunderpeal, (6) hail, and (7) atmospheric pressure, as each of these occurs during the storm or the period of observation. The original instrument is provided with clockwork to drive an endless paper band 12 inches wide at the rate of 1.2 inches per minute or 6 feet per hour, about 150 times faster than is usual in meteorological recording devices. The records of the instrument as made on this band can thus be read off with certainty to a single second of time. The records are produced in part automatically, in part by recording eye and ear observations. Automatic records are made of elements (1), (2), (7), the time in minutes, the wind velocity as indicated by a Richard anemo-cinemograph, and the relative changes in pressure to within 0.001 inch by a modified Richard statoscope. The remaining elements (3), (4), (5), and (6), are recorded when the observer moves the appropriate key or handle. The instrument may be more appropriately called the brontograph as it reVOL. IV.-2

the

cords or writes as well as measures the effects of the thunderstorm. Important papers on this instrument are: Symons, "On barometric Oscillations during Thunderstorms, and on Brontometer, etc.," in Proceedings, Royal Society, vol. xlviii, pp. 59-68 (London, 1890); Marriott, "The Brontometer," in Quarterly Journal, Royal Meteorological Society, illustrated, vol. xxxiv, pp. 207-12 (London, 1908). See also CERAUNOGRAPH. BRONTOPS. See TITANOTHERIUM.

BRONTOR/NIS. A genus of gigantic fossil birds from the lower Tertiary rocks of Patagonia, related to Phororhacos and other Stereornithes. (See BIRD, FOSSIL.) It was among the tallest of known birds. It "had leg bones larger than those of an ox, the drumstick measuring 30 inches in length by 21⁄2 inches in diameter, or 41⁄2 inches across the ends; while the tarsus, or lower bone of the leg to which the toes are attached, was 161⁄2 inches long and 51⁄2 inches wide where the toes join on.' Cf. GASTORNIS.

BRON'TOSAURUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Bpovrh, bronte, thunder + caupos, sauros, lizard). A gigantic herbivorous dinosaur of the suborder Sauropoda, the fossil remains of which are found in the upper Jurassic strata of Wyoming. The animal was of massive build and attained the great length of 60 feet, with an estimated weight for the live beast of 20 tons. The trunk of the body was short and thick, the neck long and slender, the tail large and strongly built, and the head remarkably small. The fore limbs were as long as the hind limbs, indicating that the animal walked on all fours, and the feet were plantigrade, i.e., the beast walked on the flat foot instead of on the toes; and the footprint covered a square yard of ground. The bones of the limbs were all solid and heavily built. In this respect they resemble those of the allied genus Diplodocus, while they differ from those of the majority of dinosaurs, whose bones are hollow. The long neck of the animal was probably of much use to him for feeding upon the upper portions of the aquatic plants among which he made his home, while his great bulk and small brain indicate that he was a slow-moving beast of low intelligence. For illustration of the order, see Plate of DINOSAURS.

BRON'TOTHE'RIUM. See TITANOTHERIUM. BRONX, THE. One of the boroughs of New York City (q.v.), comprising the section northeast of the Harlem River. It was made a separate county in 1913 and assumed its Own government Jan. 1, 1914.

BRONZE (probably from Lat. æs Brundisium, Brundish copper). An alloy of two or more metals, the chief ingredient always being copper, with tin next in proportion. Often zine and lead have been used; but if zinc is in greater proportion than tin, the result is not properly a bronze (see ALLOY), while lead is never present in large amounts. The bronze tools found in ancient quarries in Egypt are said to consist of 88 parts copper to 12 of tin, a hard alloy; but the supposed greater hardness which would have enabled stone cutters to work with them may have been produced by hammering, although it has been suggested that phosphorus was used and has since disappeared. (See the paragraph treating phosphor bronze, under ALLOY.) The famous mixture of antiquity called Corinthian bronze probably gained its brilliant color from a combination of copper and tin, in

a proportion of 90 of copper to 10 of tin, without other admixture.

Bronze is peculiar, in that the alloy shrinks and occupies much less space than the aggregate of the separate metals. Probably because of this shrinking, involving some interpenetration of the atoms, it is harder than either copper or tin. It has the peculiarity of filling the mold perfectly, because when melted it is very fluid-much more 80 than copper by itself. Bronze is easy to work with the tool. If used in thin sheets, it is one of the best metals for repoussé work, yielding regularly and evenly, and taking from the chasing-tool a beautiful and lasting finish. It takes from exposure to the weather, and especially to the earth in which it may be buried, a singularly beautiful green or greenish-blue color and a slightly powdery texture, which constitutes what the ancients called the arugo nobilis, the moderns, the patina. It is possible to anticipate the action of such natural causes and to give to the surface of the bronze an artificial color, as by the use of a "pickle," or by exposing it when red-hot to certain vapors. Thus, a jet-black patina is obtained by sulphur fumes. The Japanese and Chinese produce ornamental bronzes, especially vases, platters, and the like, which are colored in clouded, mottled, and veined combinations, sometimes of vivid red with different shades of brown and of yellow. Sometimes these carefully prepared decorations of the surface produce an effect similar to that of crystallization.

Mechanical Uses. As bronze gives very perfect castings, and is proof against the destructive property of the moisture of the air, it has been always used in bell casting (see BELL) and much for the supports and mountings of astronomical instruments and for cannon. This last use was common in Europe during the time of the Renaissance, and bronze cannon of the sixteenth century are remarkable for the beauty of their surface decoration, which includes sometimes the whole breech of the gun, and even the rings or staples which were used in early days to support the gun upon its carriage. All the varieties of alloy introduced since 1850 for mechanical purposes are used in the making of machinery and the like and never or very rarely in the fine arts.

Use in Art. Bronze has been in use for decorative purposes from prehistoric times. The museums are full of bronze utensils of decorative character, representing a known period of nearly 4000 years, besides much which cannot be dated of the work of outlying and littleknown civilizations. The charm of ancient, mediæval, and Renaissance bronzes is due very largely to the minute artistic and technical care which was given to each separate piece. modern statuette, group, vase, or dish is commonly a mechanical reproduction of a model made by some artist whose supervision did not extend to the piece of bronze in question; but among the ancients each piece received the full attention of its maker, as in the case of a carving done directly by the hand, in wood or in ivory.

The

Processes of Casting. The earliest bronze castings were solid; but the art of making them hollow, and so saving the material and insuring a quick and even cooling, is very ancient. The process most commonly used consists in putting a rough mass of the same material as the mold into the middle of it, so that

the bronze fills only the space between them. The central core is first built up of some material capable of bearing heat, and this is brought to an approximate semblance of the form desired in the bronze. Upon this a coat of some very fusible material, such as wax, is placed, and is modeled by the sculptor into the perfect embodiment of his design. Upon this finished surface the material of the outer mold is applied in thin semiliquid coats, each dried before the next is put on. The resulting block of clay will contain a thin mask or coat, say of wax, the outside surface of which is the required work of art. The melted metal is run into this thin division between the two masses of refractory substance; the wax instantly melts and disappears, and when the bronze has hardened and the mold is broken up, the surface of the cast will be a perfect reproduction of the sculptor's design. Practically all ancient artistic work in bronze was produced in this way. The process is called in modern times à cire perdue, 'with lost wax'; and it is evident that only one bronze casting can be obtained from each mold so made.

During the nineteenth century the process almost exclusively used was founding with sand (more rarely with loam), invented in France in 1788. The mold is formed by pressing sand around the model in such a manner that it can be taken off in pieces. These are then fitted together and encased in an iron frame. The core is formed by placing a cast of the statue made from the same or a second mold, which is cut down to admit the thickness of metal desired. In this, as in wax casting, there must be many little canals for pouring in the metal and allowing the escape of the air. The most recent process is the galvanic, first used in St. Petersburg in 1840. In this the mold is made from the model as above, usually in some such material as plaster. It is then filled with a solution of copper, which by the action of electricity is precipitated in the mold, forming a statue of pure copper, after which the mold is broken. In both founding and the galvanic process there are always defects due to the fitting and joining of the pieces, which must be removed by skillful chiseling. The results are never as artistic as à cire perdue, which is at the present time replacing the others for the finest work. The repoussé process, in which thin sheets of bronze are beaten into the required shapes, has been used from the earliest to the present day in applied art and for colossal statues. See REPOUSSÉ.

Ancient Bronzes. The art of bronze casting was well known to the ancient Egyptians, who as early as the third millennium cast admirable statues, as well as weapons, utensils, and ornaments of all kinds. The excavations of ancient Assyria and Babylonia have unearthed many artistic weapons, utensils, and articles of the toilet of Babylonian origin. The highest excellence however, was reserved for the Greeks. Even in the Mycenæan period great proficiency in casting was attained. In classic times the more important works of the Greeks, excluding those connected with buildings, were in bronze, and their marbles were more commonly replicas or copies by inferior artists, used for the adornment of porticoes, gardens, or the like, while the original bronze filled its place in the temple for which it was made. As late as the reign of Vespasian there were 3000 bronze statues in

Delphi, after Nero had carried off 500 to Rome. The same tendency existed among the Romans. Bronze statues brought home by conquerors, or made by Grecian and other artists in the service of the masters of the world, filled not only Rome itself, but the other great cities of the Empire. The value of the metal, and the ease with which it could be broken up and cast or made into coins, has caused the disappearance of nearly all of these. A very few Greco-Roman bronzes have been brought to light by recent diggings and explorations; but these are nearly always utensils, tablets bearing inscriptions, and the like. Busts, and heads cut from lost statues, exist in considerable numbers. In the British Museum there are several of great interest, but these belong mainly to the period of the longestablished Empire. Foremost among the surviving statues recently excavated is the "Charioteer of Delphi" in the museum of that place. In the little museum at Brescia, in Lombardy, is a bronze statue of heroic size, strongly resembling in its pose and general character the famous "Venus of Milo," and generally called the "Victory of Brescia." In the museum in Berlin there is a statue called the "Praying Boy," but the arms are restorations, although seemly and probable ones. The two or three large bronzes in the Etruscan Museum in Florence are of singular importance, especially the so-called "Orator"; they are not Etruscan in the sense of belonging to the years of the independent life of Etruria. The famous "SheWolf" in the Palace of the Conservators in Rome is the most valuable piece of pure Etruscan bronze work known to us; the two children are sixteenth-century additions. Besides these few pieces the contents known as the Halls of the Greater and Smaller Bronzes in the Naples Museum contain the most valuable survivals of the Imperial period. In the third of the halls of larger bronzes there are 42 statues and busts, all of human subjects and of life size or larger, most of them found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The halls of the smaller bronzes contain many statues and groups found in the same villa, and also the vast accumulation of decorative utensils found in Pompeii. Among them is the "Sleeping" (or "Drunken") "Faun," the "Hermes" seated on a rock, the six splendid draped female figures of pure Greek type known as the "Actresses" or the "Danseuses," the busts called "Apollo" and "Ptolemy," and the priceless head which has been called "Plato" from its sweet and cheerful gravity. In all these works the textile and tenacious character of the metal is allowed to dictate the character of the design. Only detailed description would make it clear how greatly these bronze pieces differ from works carved in hard material, such as marble or close-grained stone, or even Wood or ivory. From the hairdressing, in slight and thin corkscrew curls carried all around the head, and held in place by a broad band, as in the "Apollo" and the "Ptolemy," to the treatment of the thin folds of light drapery, and again to the mere pose of the figure in a position which no marble could be made to maintain, the metallic character of the design is always prominent.

Medieval and Renaissance Bronzes. The use of bronze was not entirely abandoned during the Middle Ages. The toreutic or embossed statues of certain mediæval tombs, such as that of Edward III in Westminster Abbey, are well

known. In Italy such work was more common, largely because of the Byzantine influence; and church doors, as at Benevento, Milan, and Pisa, were made as easily in a pure and graceful twelfth-century style as the primitive work of Verona and Ravello had been achieved two centuries earlier. The tendency of the Middle Ages was, however, to use metals mainly for the decoration of objects of religious and civil ceremony. In this way bronze served as a background for enameling and for the framework of elaborate altarpieces and the like. With the classical Renaissance in Italy, however, the use of bronze in the antique manner for statuary, bas-reliefs, busts, and the like was revived. Such pieces as the doors of the Baptistery in Florence, by Andrea Pisano and by Lorenzo Ghiberti, and those of the sacristy of the cathedral near by, the work of Luca della Robbia; such statues as the "David" of Donatello, the "David" of Verrocchio, the "Perseus" of Cellini with its imaged pedestal, the "Mercury" of Giovanni Bologna; such bas-reliefs as those of Donatello in the altar of San Antonio in Padua, and as those which adorn the pedestal of the statue of Duke Cosimo in the square in Florence; such pieces of decorative art as Pollajuolo's tomb of Pope Sixtus IV and the candelabrum of the Florence Baptistery; such equestrian statues as that of Colleone in Venice, by Verrocchio, that of Gattemelata in Padua, by Donatello, and two by Giovanni Bologna, the Dukes Cosimo and Ferdinand de' Medici, in Florence, are indeed the best known of this period; but they are only a few out of a great number. Mention should also be made of the achievements of the German Renaissance during the later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, especially at Nuremberg, where Peter Vischer (q.v.) and his sons cast admirable shrines, statues, tombs, and ecclesiastical furniture.

Baroque and Rococo. The work of the bronze caster was less actively pursued during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, although there was no time when important works were not in progress. During the reign of Louis XIV an important revival took place in France. Objects of interior decoration-candelabra, clocks, vases, admirable statuettes, etc.were cast and chiseled with the highest skill. Gilded plates of bronze were used in the decoration of furniture, carriages, sedan chairs, marble and porcelain vases. This art continued to flourish throughout the following reigns, the Republic, and the Empire.

The Nineteenth Century. In statuary as well as in the decorative arts France retained

In

her supremacy. In no other country is the use of bronze in art so common. Practically all the greatest sculptors have worked in this material. The historic styles of the preceding century were those most commonly used, but in late years l'art nouveau was also adopted. Much has been learned from the Chinese and Japanese, particularly in the manner of tinting bronze. Germany bronze was at first confined to statuary, but in the late nineteenth century, following French examples, it was applied to small bronzes with great success, in connection with the new naturalistic movement. Austria has in late years accomplished much along the same lines, while in Italy the faithful reproduction of antique bronzes has been carried on. Bronze casting is practiced with success in Russia, and in almost every other European country.

The first bronze statue in the United States, that of Dr. Bowditch the astronomer, was cast in 1847 by Ball Hughes. This may have been antedated by H. K. Brown's "Indian and Panther." The first equestrian statue was that of General Jackson in Washington, cast by Clarke Mills in 1852, and not H. K. Brown's Washington (1853, Union Square, New York), as is commonly supposed. Since that time there has been great progress, particularly in the small bronzes of delicate workmanship, those cast by Tiffany excelling even the Parisian in tints.

In several of the Oriental countries, particularly where the Buddhist religion prevails, the art of bronze founding has attained high perfection. For the bronzes of China and Japan, which are unexcelled in workmanship, see CHINESE ART; JAPANESE ART.

Bibliography. A good manual of the production and process of bronzes in art is the introduction to Fortnum, Descriptive Catalogue of the Bronzes of European Origin in the South Kensington Museum (London, 1876). An even better and briefer manual, is Lüer, Technik der Bronzeplastik (Leipzig, 1902). Several important manuals have been published in French under the title Les Bronzes d'art, by Sarvant (Paris, 1880), Laurent-Daragon (ib., 1881), Barbédienne (ib., 1893), and Harvard (ib., 1897). Consult also Delon, Le cuivre et le bronze (Paris, 1877); and, for the historical epochs, Swarzenski, Mittelalterliches Bronzegeräth (Berlin, 1902); Murray, Greek Bronzes (London, 1898); Bode, Italian Bronzes of the

end of the Bronze period occurs in different places at widely different times. In Greece the pre-Mycenæan period is essentially a Stone age, though the use of copper and bronze begins in Cyprus during this time. (See ARCHEOLOGY.) The Mycenaan period is marked by the use of bronze, though iron seems to have been known before this civilization passed away. Even in the Homeric poems iron is not common and is highly valued, while bronze is in common use. In Italy the Terramare of the Po valley belongs to the earlier Bronze age, but the Villanova graves near Bologna, of about 1000 B.C., show the presence of iron, and it seems likely that the Bronze age in Italy was of relatively short duration. In general it may be said that the duration and development of this period of civilization depended largely upon the accessibility of the regions where it flourished to traders from the south. Thus in France, Spain, and central Germany, with which the Greeks early came in contact through Massilia and the Rhône valley, iron was early introduced, and soon succeeded bronze for weapons and sharp tools, while in the valleys of Switzerland, among the lake dwellers, in Great Britain and northern Europe, the use of iron was much later. Indeed some archæologists would allow the Bronze age of Scandinavia to continue to the second century B.C., though Montelius places the commencement of the first Iron period about 500-400 B.C. chronology of this Swedish archæologist, a recognized authority in this field, is shown in the following table, abridged from one given in

The

Renaissance (ib., 1908); Bode, Introduction to the Catalogue of J. P. Morgan's Collection of Bronzes (Paris, 1910).

BRONZE, AGE OF. A term used by modern writers to denote that period in the history of mankind when iron was unknown and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) was in general use for weapons, tools, and ornaments. That such a period existed in a large part of Europe between the later Stone age and the introduction of iron is now admitted by most archæologists, though there is much difference of opinion in many points of detail. It should be noted that the term denotes a stage of civilization, not a chronological division, for there is no sharp line between the Stone and the Bronze ages; indeed, stone implements are common through much of the later period and are not unknown after the introduction of iron. Nor, on the other hand, does bronze cease to be used for some time after the superiority of iron has been established. The beginnings of the Bronze age in Europe are nearly synchronous, and seem to fall in the period between 2000 and 1800 B.C., as is rendered probable by the similarity of the earlier types throughout the Continent; this similarity has been explained by the theory that the knowledge of bronze on the continent of Europe was won from the East, through contact with the Phoenicians or the Greeks. The

the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, vol. xxix, p. 309 (1899), though many students of Italian archæology hold that the dates for Italy are too remote.

Of course the Bronze and Iron ages are subdivided into many periods which have been omitted here. It should also be said that European archæologists are by no means agreed upon the existence of a Copper age, many claiming that, while pure copper was doubtless used here and there, the discoveries have not been sufficient to warrant the belief in a general use for a considerable period of time. The existence of a Copper age in North America is conceded by all, and there is much probability that such an age existed on the island of Cyprus and in Egypt. Outside of Europe the existence of the three ages is not so clearly traced. Recent discoveries in Egypt show that stone and metal were used side by side for a long period, while some Egyptologists hold that iron was not in general use until about 800 B.C. Consult: Hörnes, Urgeschichte des Menschen (Vienna, 1892); Evans, Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain (London, 1881); Chantre, Age du bronze en France (Paris, 1875-76); Montelius, Les temps préhistoriques en Suède (trans. from the Swedish by S. Reinach, Paris, 1895); Morgan, L'Age de la pierre et les métaux en l'Egypte (Paris, 1896); Robert Munro, Paleolithic and