The

to accommodate the large retinue of domestics common in Indian life. Besides these private bungalows, there are military bungalows on a large scale for accommodating soldiers in cantonments; likewise public bungalows, maintained by the government for the accommodation of travelers, in which seem to be blended the characters of an English roadside inn and an Eastern caravanserai. These bungalows are quadrangular in shape, one story high, with high-peaked roofs, thatched or tiled, projecting 80 as to form porticoes and verandas. bungalow is divided into "suites" of two, three, or four rooms, provided with bedsteads, tables, and chairs; windows of glass, and framed glass doors. Off each room is a bathroom, with earthen jars of cool water. Travelers are expected to bring their servants, cooking apparatus, wine, beer, bedding, etc., with them; but the khitmut gar of the better class of bungalows supplies tableware, condiments, and even sometimes food and liquors, and he is usually skilled in cooking. The government lays a charge of one rupee a day on each traveler for the use of the bungalow. At every travelers' bungalow is stationed a government peon, who acts as watchman and is bound to assist travelers' servants in procuring supplies of fuel and food in the nearest village. The distance between the bungalows on a trunk road is generally about 12 or 15 miles an Indian day's journey. The introduction of railways is putting an end to this slow and annoying system of traveling in India.

In the United States the term has lately come into general use to designate any small house or cottage, whether for summer use only or for permanent occupation, in which all or most of the rooms are on the ground floor, and a broad and simple roof of low pitch covers the whole. The encircling veranda deemed essential in India is not an indispensable feature in these cottages, although one or more covered "piazzas" generally form a part of the design. When there are rooms on a second floor, this story is usually contained in the roof and lighted by dormers. This type of cottage has been developed with especial success in California. Consult Saylor, Bungalows; their Design, Construction, and Furnishing (New York, 1913).

BUNGAY, bun'gâ, FRIAR. A conjurer famous in the reign of Edward IV. He is described in contemporary works as "a great scholar and a magician (but not to be compared with Fryer Bacon)." He was a great friend of the latter philosopher and is reputed to have aided him in making the fabulous "Brazen Head," which spoke only the words "Time is! Time was! Time is past!" and then broke in pieces. Another story has it that Bungay and the great German necromancer Vandermast contested together for supremacy and were snatched away to other realms by the devil. Robert Greene wrote a play called after him, in 1594, and in The Last of the Barons Bulwer introduces him as a union of necromancer, "Merry Andrew," and friar. Bungay wrote several works in Latin.

BUNGE, boong'e, ALEXANDER VON (1803-90). A Russian traveler and botanist. He was born in Kiev and was educated at the University of Dorpat. His extensive and important travels through Asia (1826-29) with Ledebour are recorded in the work entitled Karl Friedrich von Ledebours Reise durch das Altaigebirge und die dsungarische Kirgisensteppe (1829). In 1830 he accompanied a missionary expedition to

China as naturalist, and later published the results of his botanical investigation on the steppe of Gobi and in the environs of Pekin in the works entitled Enumeratio Plantarum quas in China Boreali Collegit (1831) and Plantarum Mongholico Chinensium Decas I (1835). He was appointed professor of botany and director of the botanical garden at Dorpat in 1836. His writings also include: Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Flora Ruszlands und der Steppen Zentralasiens (1851); Anabasearum revisio (1862); Labiata persica (1873).

BUNGE, FRIEDRICH GEORG VON (1802–97). A German legal historian, born in Kiev, and educated at the University of Dorpat, where in 1831 he was appointed professor of law. Bunge was the editor of several periodicals, and published a large number of works on the laws of Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland, on which subject he was probably the greatest authority of his day. His principal writings include: Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Liv-, Esth- und Kurländischen Rechtsgeschichte (1838); Das Liv- und Esthländische Privatrecht (2 parts, 1838-39; 2d ed., 1847-48); Altivlands Rechtsbücher (1879).

BUNGE, NIKOLAI KHRISTIANOVITCH (182395). A Russian political economist. He was born in Moscow and was educated at the university in that city. In 1881 he was appointed assistant to the Minister of Finance, Abaza, and in 1882 he succeeded him. The condition of the Russian finances at this time was extremely unfavorable. The war debt of 1877 had not been paid, the deficit in the national exchequer had steadily increased, and the paper currency had diminished in value. Nevertheless Bunge succeeded in establishing important reforms. increased the national property by abrogating the poll tax and the tax on salt, by establishing agrarian banks in order to facilitate the acquisition of land by the peasantry, and by enacting various other measures tending to improve the condition of the rural population. His works, which are written in Russian, are devoted principally to a discussion of current economie questions.

He

BUNGERT, bōong'ert, AUGUST (1846-1915) A German musician, born in Mülheim, Rhenish Prussia. His masters were Kufferath, Mathias, and Kiel, and he also studied in the Cologne and Paris conservatories. By many German musicians he has been regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Wagnerian school, but his trilogy based on the Homeric poems, and written directly on Wagnerian lines, seems not to have reached the spirit and significance of the model. His songs, however, are among the modern masterpieces of that kind of music. The two great opera cycles he has worked on include Die Ilias, comprising Achilles and Klytemnestra, and Die Odyssee, including Kirke (1898), Nausikaa (1901), Odysseus' Heimkehr (1896), and Odysseus' Tod (1903). There is an overture for each of these divisions; the entire work is entitled Homerische Welt. His other compositions include the comic opera Die Studenten von Salamanca (1884); a symphonic poem, Auf der Wartburg; Hohes Lied der Liebe; a mystery, Warum? Woher? Wohin?; Heroische Symphonie; incidental music to Goethe's Faust; Meerlieder; and Lieder einer Königin.

BU'NIAS. A genus of plants of the family Crucifere. The few known species are mainly natives of southeastern Europe and the Levant,

but several are reported indigenous to France. Bunias orientalis, introduced into western Europe, is grown as a forage crop and in some regions has escaped from cultivation. In Russia it is also used as a vegetable. Although a hardy plant, its cultivation is not general. The amount of herbage is small and, on account of its hairy covering, is not readily eaten by cattle. It is sometimes called hill mustard.

BUNION, bun'yon (It. bugnone, knob, OF. bugne, swelling, from Icel. bunga, elevation). A term applied in surgery to an enlarged bursa, or synovial sac, situated over the metatarsal joint of the great toe (see Foor), and accompanied by more or less distortion of the joint. In the great majority of cases bunions are directly produced by the pressure of badly fitting boots, particularly those with narrow toes. A bunion begins as a painful and tender spot over one of the metatarso-phalangeal joints; the part gradually enlarges, and there are indications of an effusion into a natural bursa or a newly formed sac. The progress of the affection may stop here, the bursa remaining, and serving to protect the subjacent parts from pressure. Thickening of the periosteum may result in enlargement of the articular ends of the bones and permanent deformity.

In its early stage the treatment must be palliative. Pressure must be removed and wet dressings applied. If pus forms, the swelling must be incised. Ulceration must be treated as any similar wounds (q.v.). Excision of diseased bone or even amputation may be required. The ulcers resulting from a suppurating bunion are very difficult to heal in old persons whose circulation is feeble. Such ulcers, under the best treatment, not very infrequently form the starting point for senile gangrene. Orthopedic measures consist in wearing shoes with broad, rounded toes, and straight inside borders. The great toe may be pulled into place and held there by means of adhesive plaster strips, and pledgets of wool worn between the first two toes. BUNKER. See MENHADEN.

BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF. The first severe battle of the American Revolution, fought June 17, 1775, on Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill, Charlestown, Mass., between about 3000 British troops under General Howe and about 1500 Americans under Col. William Prescott. On the night of the 16th Prescott was sent to fortify Bunker Hill, the possession of which would compel the evacuation of Boston by the British; but he threw up an earthwork on Breed's Hill instead, and there awaited the English attack. On June 17, at 3 P.M., the British charged up the hill, but were driven back with great loss. A second charge also was repulsed. At 4.30 o'clock, however, the British advanced again, and this time, the powder of the Americans being spent, succeeded in dislodging Prescott's men and forcing them from the field. The losses in killed, wounded, and missing were 1054 (including 95 officers) for the British, and about 450 for the Americans. Among those killed on the American side was General Warren. In the course of the engagement Charlestown was set on fire by British shells and was burned to the ground. Though Howe secured a strategic point which enabled him to retain his hold on Boston, the battle was morally a victory for the Americans, in that it demonstrated their fighting capacity and greatly increased the spirit of resistance throughout the country. The best account

of the battle is probably that in Richard Frothingham, Siege of Boston (Boston, 1902). Consult, also, G. E. Ellis, History of the Battle of Bunker's (Breed's) Hill (Boston, 1875); an excellent and discriminating article by C. F. Adams, Jr., in vol. i of The American Historical Review (New York, 1896); Edward Channing, History of the United States, vol. i (New York, 1907); and Greene, The Revolutionary War and the Military Policy of the United States (New York, 1911). The maps in Avery, History of the United States and its People, vol. vi (Cleveland, 1909), are particularly useful.

BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. A shaft in the form of an obelisk commemorating the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. It stands on the battle ground on Breed's Hill (now generally called Bunker Hill), Boston. The shaft is of Quincy granite 221 feet high with interior stairs, and an outlook at the summit. General Lafayette assisted in laying the corner stone in 1825, on which occasion Daniel Webster delivered an oration. The monument was formally dedicated in 1843, Webster being again the chief speaker.

BUNKUM. See BUNCOMBE.

BUN'NER, HENRY CUYLER (1855-96). An American novelist and humorist, editor of Puck from almost its beginning till his death. After a brief experience of business life he essayed journalism on the staff of the short-lived Arcadian, and passed thence in 1877 to the editorial office of Puck. His best claim to remembrance is as novelist, story-writer, and poet. Both The Midge (1886) and The Story of a New York House (1887) showed a sympathetic feeling for the artistic elements in New York life, but his talent was even more marked in short stories. Of several volumes of these stories, the most. popular were: Zadok Pine (1891); Short Sixes (1891), a very clever adaptation of stories from the French: More Short Sixes (1894); Love in Old Cloathes (1896); and Jersey Street and Jersey Lane (1896). Of notable interest is Made in France (1893), stories adapted from Maupassant (q.v.) with a skill that occasionally betters the French originals. Representative verses of Bunner's are collected in Airs from Arcady (1884). He wrote also a play, The Tower of Babel (1883).

BUNSEN, boons'en, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS. BARON (1791-1860). A German scholar and diplomatist. He was born Aug. 25, 1791, at Korbach, in the Principality of Waldeck, and studied philology at Göttingen under Heyne. He taught in the Latin school there and was private tutor to W. B. Astor, of New York, with whom he traveled in Germany in 1813. To extend his knowledge of the Teutonic tongues, Bunsen went to Holland and afterward to Copenhagen. The work and character of Niebuhr (q.v.) aroused his enthusiasm, and he spent some months of 1815 in Berlin in the company of the historian. In 1816 he went to Paris and studied Persian and Arabic under Sylvestre de Sacy, and in the same year removed to Rome, where he married. Niebuhr, then Prussian Ambassador, took the greatest interest in the scientific pursuits of Bunsen and procured (1818) his appointment as Secretary to the Embassy. While Frederick William III was in Rome in 1822, he formed a favorable opinion of Bunsen's ability and character and requested him to continue in the state service. On Niebuhr's departure from Rome (1824) Bunsen conducted the embassy provision

ally for a time and was then appointed Resident Minister (1827), but, becoming involved in a court intrigue against Baron Droste, he resigned his post in 1837. Living in intimate intercourse with Niebuhr, Bunsen had employed the time in prosecuting his investigations into the philosophy of language and religion and had made, on the one hand, the philosophy of Plato and the constitutions of antiquity and, on the other, biblical inquiries, church history, and liturgies, objects of special attention. Though not within the scope of the great plan of his life, he contributed largely to the Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (3 vols., 1830-43), the greater part of the topographical communications on ancient Rome, and all the investigations into the early history of Christian Rome. The first visit of the Egyptologist Champollion (q.v.) to Rome formed an epoch in Bunsen's antiquarian studies. became himself a zealous auditor of Champollion and also encouraged Lepsius in the study of hieroglyphics. The Archæological Institute, established in 1829, found in Bunsen its most active supporter. He founded the Protestant hospital on the Tarpeian Rock in 1835. During his residence in Rome he contributed largely to the revision of the Lutheran liturgy.

He

In 1841 Bunsen was sent on a special mission to London and was shortly afterward appointed Ambassador at the English court. In Berlin, in 1844, he was asked to set forth his views on the question of granting a constitution to Prussia; and he presented a series of memorials representing the need of a deliberative assembly and also made a plan of a constitution modeled on that of England. In the Schleswig-Holstein question Bunsen strongly advocated the German view, in opposition to Denmark, and protested against the London protocol of 1850, although he was prevailed upon to sign that of 1852 respecting the succession in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein. In the midst of all his political duties Bunsen continued unabated his literary and philosophical pursuits, the results of which appeared from time to time. Because he differed from his government as to the part Prussia should take in the Eastern question (q.v.) Bunsen ceased in 1854 to represent Prussia at the court of England and retired to Heidelberg. He had a deep appreciation of English national characteristics. In England he was regarded by those who knew him as the most philosophical and most reverent of lay theologians. His chief works are: De Jure Atheniensium Hæreditario (1813); Die Kirche der Zukunft (Eng. trans. and published by Longman, 1845); Ignatius von Antiochien und seine Zeit (1847); Die drei echten und die vier unechten Briefe des Ignatius von Antiochien (1847); Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte (Eng. trans. by Cottrell, 1845-47); Die Basiliken des christlichen Roms (1843); Hippolytus und seine Zeit (1851); Christianity and Mankind (1854); Gott in der Geschichte (1857); Vollständiges Bibelwerk für die Gemeinde (9 vols., 1858-70). This Bunsen hoped to make his chief work, but he completed only the first, second, and fifth volumes, the others being from his notes by Holtzmann and Kamphausen. Bunsen was created a baron in 1857, and died in Bonn, Nov. 28, 1860. Consult: L. Von Ranke, Aus dem Briefwechsel Friederick Wilhelms IV Mit Bunsen (Berlin, 1873); also, A Memoir of Baron Bunsen, by his wife (London, 1868).

BUNSEN, FRANCES, BARONESS (1791-1876). The wife of the preceding, of whom she published a biography under the title A Memoir of Baron Bunsen, Drawn Chiefly from Family Papers, by his Widow, Frances, Baroness Bunsen (1868). She was an Englishwoman by birth. Consult Hare, Life and Letters of Frances, Baroness Bunsen (2 vols., London, 1879; Ger. trans. by Hans Thorau, 7th ed., Gotha, 1899).

A

BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM (1811-99). distinguished German chemist. He entered the University of Heidelberg and devoted himself to the study of geology, chemistry, and physics. He afterward continued his studies in Paris, Berlin, and Vienna. After having held the post of professor in Cassel, Marburg, and Breslau, successively, he was, in 1852, appointed to the chair of chemistry at the University of Heidelberg, where he remained until 1889, when he retired from active service. Bunsen's discoveries have formed important contributions to the progress of science in the latter part of the nineteenth century. His discovery, jointly with Kirchhoff, of the method of spectrum analysis, has led to the discovery of the alkali metals cæsium and rubidium and, more recently, of a number of other elements; with the aid of the spectroscope we are enabled further to analyze the fixed stars by analyzing the light we receive from them and ascertaining the lines characteristic of the several elementary substances composing the visible universe. Bunsen's flame tests (see ANALYSIS and FLAME) have formed another method in analytical chemistry. The flame reactions are usually observed with the aid of the well-known burner of Bunsen's invention, which furnished a smokeless, nonluminous flame of high temperature; the principle of the Bunsen burner is now extensively utilized in the household for cooking purposes. Bunsen also carried out a series of interesting researches on the double cyanides; and the cacodyl (q.v.) groups discovered by him soon after Wöhler and Liebig had discovered the benzoyl group, served to confirm the idea that the nature of an organic compound depends upon the radicals of which it is composed one of the fundamental principles of modern organic chemistry. He further devised a process for making the metal magnesium on a large scale and showed how to obtain an exceedingly brilliant light by burning magnesium wire; discovered the fact that hydrated oxide of iron is an excellent antidote for arsenic poisoning, etc. Only a few of his more important contributions to physical chemistry can be mentioned here. He investigated the absorption of gases by liquids at different temperatures and under different pressures; he showed that the melting temperature of substances which, unlike water, expand during the change from the solid to the liquid state, rises with increase of external pressure; he studied the chemical distribution of a given gas between two other gaseous substances, when exploded with a mixture containing an excess of either; invented the ice calorimeter, which is often indispensable in thermochemical determinations; jointly with Roscoe, he adapted John W. Draper's actinometer for use in work of precision, and, by the use of the improved instrument, carried out, together with Roscoe, a series of important photochemical measurements. He invented also a filter pump, a photometer, a galvanic cell, and other useful apparatus. Among his publications may be mentioned: Gasometrische Methoden (1857); Chem