Falguière. After his return to Philadelphia he became instructor in the School of Industrial Art in that city. He combines technical ability with originality of conception and a fine discrimination in the choice of simple decorative motives, and is always plain and straightforward both in his treatment of material and grasp of subject. His first important commission was the statue of Dr. Samuel D. Gross, in front of the Army and Medical Museum, Washington, one of the finest monunients in that city. The six heroic figures of representative Presbyterian theologians, over the entrance to the Witherspoon Building in Philadelphia, are full of character and individuality. His fountain for the class of 1892, University of Pennsylvania, is a good example of his style, and among his ideal works "Narcissus," "The Man Cub," "The Dozing Hercules," "The Miner," "Primeval Discontent" (a powerful study of the nude), are especially deserving of mention. He is represented in the St. Louis Museum of Fine Arts, the Philadelphia Academy, Franklin Inn Club, and Throop Institute, Pasadena. One of the best designs for a figure and pedestal ever produced in America is his sketch model for a monument to Matthias W. Baldwin. His father, ALEXANDER MILNE CALDER (1846- ), born in Aberdeen, Scotland, came to America at the age of 22. He furnished most of the sculptural decorations in the City Hall, Philadelphia, and a statue of General Meade in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia.

CALDER, JAMES ALEXANDER (1868- ). A Canadian lawyer and statesman, born at Ingersoll, Ont. He studied at the Ingersoll high school and at Manitoba College, Winnipeg. He was principal of the Moosejaw, Saskatchewan, high school in 1891-94, inspector of schools in the Northwest Territories in 1894-1900, and of that region also deputy commissioner of education in 1901-05. He entered politics in 1905 and was called to the bar in 1906. He first sat as a Liberal member for Regina, the capital of Saskatchewan, in the Legislative Assembly (1905-08) and in 1908 became member for Saltcoats. In the Liberal administration of Walter Scott (q.v.) he was in 1905 appointed Provincial Treasurer and Commissioner of Education. He was a member of the Interprovincial Conference at Ottawa in 1906, and in 1909 a member of the Royal Conservation Commission.

CALDERA, kål-dā'rå (Sp., kettle, Eng. caldron, referring to the hollow depression of volcanic origin). A seaport of Chile, in the Province of Atacama, 25 miles from Copiapó, lat. 27° 5' S. (Map: Chile, C 9). It has an excellent harbor, protected by breakwaters, and exports silver and copper, being the port for the productive mining district centring at Copiapó, with which it is connected by railroad, the first constructed in Chile, and one of the first in South America. There are silver and copper smelters here. The town is the seat of a United States consular agent. Pop., 1903, 2130. CALDERON, BRIDGE OF. See PUENTE DE CALDERON.

CALDERÓN, DON SERAFÍN ESTÉBANEZ. See ESTEBANEZ CALDERÓN, DON SERAFÍN.

CALDERÓN, käl'dâ-rõn', FRANCISCO GARCÍA (1832-1905). A Peruvian statesman, born in Arequipa. He was elected to the Peruvian Congress (1867), and became Minister of the Treasury (1868). After the occupation of Lima by the Chilean army (1881), and the flight of Presi

dent Piérola, Calderón was elected Provisional President of Peru. In this capacity he attempted to treat with the Chileans and to secure the cooperation of the United States, which, along with Switzerland and the Central American Republics, had recognized his government. These plans were frustrated by the Chileans, who sent him to Valparaiso as a prisoner. Upon his return to Lima in 1886, he became President of the Senate and rector of the University of San Marcos, the most ancient university in the New World. Aided zealously by the professors, he worked hard for its restoration, and by the end of 1886 the buildings were again in use and there was a solemn distribution of prizes to the students. He was influential in arranging the Grace contract, by means of which great improvements were made in the finances of Peru, to such an extent that her foreign debt was wiped out and her future prosperity, in all human probability, assured. His principal publication is the Dictionary of Peruvian Jurisprudence, a standard work of great erudition. Consult C. R. Markham, History of Peru (Chicago, 1892).

CALDERON, kål'der-on, PHILIPPE HERMOGENE (1833-98). An historical, genre, and portrait painter. He was born in Poitiers, of Spanish parentage, but passed most of his life in England. He studied under J. M. Leigh in London and under Picot in Paris. In 1858 he made his début at the Royal Academy with "By the Waters of Babylon." "Broken Vows," exhibited in 1857, shows a leaning towards the Pre-Raphaelite style, which he temporarily adopted. His best works include "Her Most High Noble and Puissant Grace" (Leeds), "British Embassy in Paris during the Massacre of St. Bartholomew" (1863), "Renunciation of St. Elizabeth of Hungary" (1891, National Gallery of British Art)-his masterpiece. Calderon belongs to the group of the painters of St. John's Wood School, and was keeper of the Royal Academy from 1867 to his death. His pictures are a combination of French technique and English sentiment, rendered with good dramatic effect.

CALDERÓN DE LA BARCA, kül'då-rōn' dâ ish dramatic poet, next to Lope de Vega, Spain's lå bär kȧ, PEDRO (1600-81). An eminent Spangreatest dramatist, and the most typically national Spanish writer of his century. He came of a good old family, and was born Jan. 17, 1600, in Madrid, where his father was secretary in the Department of the Treasury. His mother, who was descended from a distinguished family in Hainaut, died in 1610; and his father died in 1615. The poet was educated at the Jesuit college of his native city, and later studied law for a time in Salamanca. His first play was written at the age of 13, and at 22 he took part in a poetical contest held in honor of St. Isidore at Madrid, and won a prize with a poem which called forth warm praise from Lope de Vega. His biographer, Vera Tassis, states that the 10 years from 1625 to 1635, or thereabouts (there is some discrepancy in the dates), were spent doing military service in Italy and Flanders, but this statement cannot be maintained in the face of numerous legal documents that prove Calderón's presence in Madrid during those years. In 1636 his brother José edited a volume of his comedias, which contains some of the plays that have enjoyed the most enduring fame: La vida es sueño, El purgatorio de San Patricio, La devoción de la cruz, La dama duende, and Peor

está que estaba. In 1637 Philip IV, who had already commissioned him for a series of plays for the royal theatre in the Buen Retiro, made him a Knight of the Order of Santiago. In 1640 he had to interrupt the composition of a play in order to join his fellow knights in a campaign against the Catalan rebels. He rendered conspicuous and gallant service at Tarragona, which led to his receiving a special military pension in 1645, three years after he had retired from the army through ill health. The deep grief that he felt at the death (1648) of his mistress drove him to religion for consolation, and in 1650 he became a tertiary of the Order of St. Francis. In 1651 he followed the example of Lope de Vega and entered the priesthood, becoming successively chaplain at Toledo, honorary chaplain to Philip IV and superior of the Brotherhood of San Pedro in Madrid. Yet he still continued to write for the stage, and when he died, May 5, 1681, he was engaged upon a new auto sacramental, a form of religious play in which he excelled all his predecessors. His last secular play, Hado y Divisa de Leonido y Marfisa, to celebrate the marriage of Charles II to MarieLouise de Bourbon, was also written during the last year of his life. His friend De Solís wrote of him, "He died, as they say the swan dies, singing."

With Calderón the golden period of Spanish drama comes to a close. He found it at its height, and he exhausted, one after another, the possibilities of its several types. As to the rank which should be assigned him, it must be borne in mind that he wrote not for the world, but for the narrow circle of his own age and country. He was essentially, fundamentally local; he lacked the universality, the wide humanity of Shakespeare, to whom, curiously enough, Friedrich Schlegel found him superior. He lacked the gift of finely differentiating his characters. They stand less for individuals than for personifications of certain primitive and dominant passions, love, hate, pride, charity, revenge, and above all else, for the personification of those fundamental passions as found in cultural conditions of the time and society in which he lived. And yet, despite all this, he has created some characters that stand out in splendid individuality. His leading motives are limited in number; they almost narrow down to the three sentiments of loyalty to the King, devotion to the Church, and the "point of honor," or vengeance inflicted by husband, father, or brother upon an erring woman. Perhaps nothing serves better to illustrate his circumscribed outlook upon life than the plays in which this last theme is treated. His heroes have nothing of the lofty passion of an Othello, the sublimity of a noble nature gone astray. They are likely to impress one rather as coldblooded executioners, sensitive only to the fear of being made to appear absurd. And yet, if we would only take time and trouble thoroughly to absorb the idea that to a Spaniard's mind a Christian gentleman must be cristiano, valiente y comedido, not merely Christian and valiant, but also "measured" and "self-controlled"; that the height of absurdity was the failure to remain comedido; and that one could not be considered "measured" or "self-controlled" if he had not a calm and due regard for his honor as then understood-if we would only take time properly to weigh all these elements, we should probably conclude that this fear of being, or of

being made to appear, absurd is after all a legitimate dramatic force; and we all do recognize that, mutatis mutandis, it is one of the most potent forces with which we work in modern society.

Many critics think that Calderón was at his best as a writer of autos, or religious plays, which closely resemble the mystery plays of the Middle Ages, and in their more specialized form are a sort of dramatized exposition of the mystery of the blessed eucharist, intended for performance on Corpus Christi Day. Of these autos, nearly 80 are extant, although the number varies in different authorities, who sometimes fail to distinguish between the auto and the more secular comedia devota. Of the regu lar dramas, there are about 120 surviving, among which are El Alcalde de Zalamea; El príncipe constante; La dama duende; El médico de su honra; El pintor de su deshonra; El mayor monstruo los celos, and La vida es sueño.

Editions of Calderón are: Keil's (Leipzig, 1827); Hartzenbusch's (Madrid, Rivadeneyra, 4 vols., 1872-74); and García Ramón (Madrid, 1882); a German translation of the plays, by J. D. Gries (9 vols., Berlin, 1862). There are English translations of selected plays by M'Carthy (1854-73); Edward FitzGerald (3 vols., 1853), and Six Dramas of Calderón freely translated by E. FitzGerald, edited by H. Oelsner (London, 1903). There is also an annotated edition of three plays, made by N. MacColl (London, 1888). Consult: Schmidt, Die Schauspiele Calderóns (Elberfeld, 1857); Trench, Essay on the Life and Genius of Calderón (London, 1880); Menéndez y Pelayo, Calderón y su teatro (Madrid, 1881); Rubió y Lluch, El sentimiento del honor en el teatro de Calderón (Barcelona, 1882); Günthner, Calderón und seine Werke (Freiburg, 1888); C. Pérez Pastor, Documentos para la Biografia de D. P. Calderón de la Barca vol. i (Madrid, 1905); H. Breymann, Calderón-Studien, I: Die Calderón Litteratur (Munich, 1905).

CALDERON THE COURTIER. A story of Spanish romance by Bulwer Lytton (1838).

CALDERWOOD, kal'dĕr-wud, DAVID (1575– 1650). A Scottish divine and ecclesiastical historian. He was born in Dalkeith, of a good family, and about 1604 was settled as Presbyterian minister of Crailing, Roxburghshire, a few miles southeast of Edinburgh. Opposed to the designs of James VI for the establishment of episcopacy in Scotland, on that monarch's visit to his native country in 1617, he and other ministers signed a protest against a bill, then before the Scottish Parliament, for granting the power of framing new laws for the Church to an ecclesiastical council appointed by the King, and in consequence he was summoned before the high commission of St. Andrews. Refusing to submit, he was committed to prison for contumacy and then banished the kingdom. He retired to Holland, 1619, and in 1621, in English, and in 1623, in Latin, published at Leyden, under the pseudonym Edwardus Didoclavius, an anagram on his name, Latinized, his celebrated controversial work, entitled Altare Damascenum etc., in which he rigorously examined the origin and authority of episcopacy, and which has been a storehouse of information and argument in favor of Presbyterianism. After King James's death, in 1625, he returned to Scotland, and for some years was engaged collecting all the memorials relating to the ecclesiastical affairs of

CALDWELL, SAMUEL LUNT (1820-89). An American Baptist educator. He was born in Newburyport, Mass., and graduated from Waterville (now Colby) College in 1839, and from Newton Theological Institution in 1845. He held pastorates in Bangor, Me., and Providence, R. I., and was professor of church history at the Newton Seminary from 1873 to 1878. He then became the second president of Vassar College, and held this position until 1885. He was secretary to the corporation of Brown University in 1875-89.

A

CALDWELL, WILLIAM (1863- ). Canadian educator, born in Edinburgh, Scotland, and educated at Edinburgh University. He took postgraduate studies in German, French, and English universities, and in 1887 was appointed assistant professor of logic and metaphysics in Edinburgh University. He was government examiner in philosophy in the University of St. Andrews in 1889-92. In 1891 he received a call to a professorship in the Sage School of Philosophy, Cornell University. He joined the faculty of Chicago University the following year, in 1894-1903 was professor of moral and social philosophy in Northwestern University, and was then appointed Macdonald professor of moral philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. His principal publications are: Schopenhauer's System in its Philosophical Significance (1896); Pragmatism and Idealism (1913); and contributions to the leading psychological and philosophical reviews.

CA'LEB (dog). The name both of an individual and of a Kenizzite clan, mentioned in 1 Sam. xxv. 3; Num. xxxii. 12; Judg. i. 15; 1 Chron. ii. 9 et seq. The clan was probably of Edomitish origin. Before the time of David (c.1033993 B.C.) it was established in Hebron and its neighborhood. Caleb ben Jephunneh is the eponymous hero of the clan, representing its advance from Arabia into the Negeb. In the story of the spies (Num. xiii. 6) it even represents Judah. Post-exilic genealogies connect Caleb closely with Jerahmeel, as a younger brother, and both through Hezron and Perez with Judah. It is possible that these genealogies reflect vaguely the outlines of a history, of which northwestern Arabia and the Negeb were the scenes, before the different elements were welded together into the Kingdom of Judah by David. Consult: Moore, Judges (1895); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judentums (1896); id., Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme (1906).

CALEB WILLIAMS. A novel by William Godwin, published in May, 1794. It is a study in the relativity of ethics. For the plot, see FALKLAND. It was dramatized by Colman the Younger. See IRON CHEST, THE.

CAL'EDO'NIA (Lat., Gk. Kaλndovia, Kalėdonia, still retained in Cymr. Coed Celyddon, Caledonian Forest). The name given to the northern part of Britannia, beyond the firths of Forth and Clyde, by Tacitus and the later Romans. The derivation is very uncertain. Agricola attempted the conquest of Caledonia, which he invaded in 82 A.D. and the following years. In 84 he defeated Calgacus, who had formed a union of all the tribes, but was prevented, by his recall, from pursuing the conquest. Later Hadrian, Septimius Severus, and others attempted to subdue Caledonia, but the inhabitants succeeded in maintaining their independence. The natives made constant incursions into Britain. In the fourth and fifth centuries, under the names of

Scots and Picts, they preyed upon the Britons, especially after the withdrawal of the Roman legions, until the island was occupied by the Angles and Saxons. See BRITANNIA; SCOTLAND. CALEDONIA, NEW. See NEW CALEDONIA. CAL'EDO'NIAN CANAL. A chain of natural lakes in Scotland, 62 miles long, united by artificial canals and traversing the Great Glen of Albin, in Inverness-shire, from northeast to southwest, from Beauly Firth to near Fort William, and connecting the North Sea with the Irish Sea. The lakes are Beauly, Ness, Oich, Lochy, Eil, and Linnhe (Map: Scotland, D 2). They communicate by cuts 120 feet broad at the surface, 50 feet at the bottom, and 17 feet deep, the total length of these artificial channels being 23 miles. The canal was formed to avoid dangerous and tedious navigation by the Pentland Firth, Cape Wrath, and the Hebrides; the distance between Kinnaird's Head and the Sound of Mull by this route being 500 miles, but by the canal 250, with an average saving of 9 days for sailing vessels. The highest part is Loch Oich, 105 feet above the sea. There are 28 locks, each 170 to 180 feet long, and 40 feet wide, with a rise or lift of water of 8 feet. Eight of the locks, called Neptune's Staircase, occur in succession near the west end of the canal. Begun under Telford, in 1803, the canal was opened in 1823. Ships of 500 to 600 tons can pass through. It is chiefly used by fishing boats and for local traffic, and in the summer season is much frequented by tourists attracted by the picturesque scenery and points of interest on both sides of the canal.

CAL'EDO'NIA SPRINGS. A health resort in Prescott Co., Ontario, Canada, and 66 miles west of Montreal on the Canadian Pacific Railroad. The town is famous for its alkaline springs.

CA'LEF, or CALFE, ROBERT (c.1648-1719). A Boston merchant, who published in 1700 More Wonders of the Invisible World, a reply to Cotton Mather's Wonders of the Invisible World (1692). His argument against the witchcraft persecutions and his attack on Mather were prompted, in part at least, by political reasons and had the backing of the Liberal party in Boston, especially William and Thomas Brattle. Mather's parishioners published a defense of him. Calef's book was publicly burned at Cambridge by order of Increase Mather, then president of Harvard College.

CALENDAR (Lat. calendarium, accountbook, interest falling due on the calends, from calendæ, calends). The mode of adjusting the months and other divisions of the civil year to the natural or solar year. The necessity of some division and measurement of time must have been early felt. The phases or changes of the moon supplied a natural and very obvious mode of dividing and reckoning time, and hence the division into months (q.v.; see also WEEK) of 29 or 30 days was, perhaps, the earliest and most universal. But it would soon be observed that for many purposes the changes of the seasons were more serviceable as marks of division; and thus arose the division into years (q.v.), determined by the motions of the sun. It was soon, however, discovered that the year, or larger division, did not contain an exact number of the smaller divisions or months, and that an accommodation was necessary; and various not very dissimilar expedients were employed for correcting the error that arose. The ancient Egyptians

had a year determined by the changes of the seasons, without reference to the changes of the moon, and containing 365 days, divided into 12 months of 30 days each, with five supplementary days at the end of the year. The Jewish year consisted in the earliest periods, as it still does, of 12 lunar months, a thirteenth being from time to time introduced, to accommodate it to the sun and seasons. This was also the case with the ancient Syrians, Macedonians, etc. The Jewish months have alternately 29 and 30 days; the years are arranged in cycles of 19 years, seven of which, viz., the 3d, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th, have the intercalary month, and are known as "embolismic" years. Some of these years have one, and some two days more than others, so that the length of the year varies from 353 to 385 days. The beginning of the Jewish civil year falls between September 5 and October 5, and corresponds to the period of seedtime in Palestine. The names of the months in order are Tishri, Heshwan, Kislew, Tebet, Shebat, Adar, Nisan, Iyyar, Siwan, Tammuz, Ab, and Elul, the intercalary month, We-Adar, being inserted between Adar and Nisan. The seventh civil month, Nisan, which comes at the time of harvest in Palestine, is regarded as the first month of the Jewish sacred year. The Greeks, in the most ancient periods, reckoned according to real lunar months, 12 making a year; and about 594 B.C. Solon introduced in Athens the mode of reckoning alternately 30 and 29 days to the month, accommodating this civil year of 354 days to the solar year by occasional introduction of an intercalary month. A change was afterward made, by which three times in eight years a month of 30 days was intercalated, making the average length of the year 3654 days. See ME

TONIC CYCLE.

The Romans are said to have had originally a year of 10 months; but in the time of their kings they adopted a lunar year of 355 days, divided into 12 months, with an occasional intercalary month. Through the ignorance of the priests, who had the charge of this matter, the utmost confusion gradually arose, which Julius Cæsar remedied (46 B.C.) by the introduction of the Julian Calendar, according to which the year has ordinarily 365 days, and every fourth year is a leap year of 366 days-the length of the year being assumed as 365 days, while it is in reality 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds; or 11 minutes, 14 seconds less. See KALENDS; MONTH.

So perfect was the Julian style of reckoning that it prevailed generally among Christian nations, and remained undisturbed till the accumulation of the remaining error of 11 minutes or so had amounted, in 1582, to 10 complete days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th instead of the 21st of March, as it did at the time of the Council of Nice, 325 A.D. This shifting of days had caused great disturbances, by unfixing the times of the celebration of Easter, and hence of all the other movable feasts, and accordingly, Pope Gregory XIII, after careful study, with the aid of Clavius, the astronomer, ordained that 10 days should be deducted from the year 1582, by calling what, according to the old calendar, would have been reckoned the 5th of October the 15th of October, 1582; and, in order that this displacement might not recur, it was further ordained that every hundredth year (1700, 1800, 1900, etc.) should not be counted a leap year, excepting every fourth hundredth, beginning

with 1600. In this way the difference between the civil and natural year will not amount to a day in 3000 years. In Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, the Pope was exactly obeyed. In France the change took place in the same year, by calling the 10th the 20th of December. In the Low Countries the change was from the 15th December to the 25th; but it was resisted by the Protestant part of the community till the year 1700. The Catholic nations, in general, adopted the style ordained by their sovereign pontiff; but the Protestants were then too much inflamed against Catholicism in all its relations to receive even a purely scientific improvement from such hands. The Lutherans of Germany, Switzerland, and, as already mentioned, of the Low Countries, at length gave way in 1700, when it had become necessary to omit 11 instead of 10 days. A bill to this effect had been brought before the Parliament of England in 1585, but does not appear to have gone beyond a second reading in the House of Lords. It was not till 1751, and after great inconveniences had been experienced for nearly two centuries, from the differences of the reckoning, that an act was passed for equalizing the style in Great Britain and Ireland with that used in other countries of Europe. It was then enacted that 11 days should be omitted after the 2d of September, 1752, so that the ensuing day should be the 14th. A similar change was made about the same time in Sweden and Tuscany, and Russia and Greece are now the only countries using the old style; a practice which renders it necessary, when a letter is thence addressed to a person in another country, that the date should be given thus: April or June 27 It will be observed that the years 1800 and 1900, not being considered by us as leap years, have interjected two more days, making the difference 13 days between old and new style.

July 10

Mohammedan Calendar. The Mohammedan world employs a lunar year of 354 days, divided into 12 lunar months which have alternately 30 and 29 days. The names of the months are Muharram, Saphar, Rabia I, Rabia II, Jomada I, Jomada II, Rajab, Shaaban, Ramadan, Shawall, Dulkaada, and Dulheggia. Eleven times in every cycle of 30 years, an extra day is added at the end of the year, but no attempt is made to regulate the calendar to the solar year. Consequently there can be no correspondence between the months and the seasons, and the beginning of the year may fall at any time during the solar year. The Mohammedan year which began on Nov. 30, 1913, was the 12th year in the 45th cycle, or the year 1332 of the Mohammedan era. See CHRONOLOGY; HEJIRA.

French Revolutionary Calendar. The French nation, in 1793, undertook the task of making a new calendar, professedly upon philosophical principles. The new era was dated from the minute of the autumnal equinox (Sept. 22, 1792), which was also the day from which the existence of the republic was reckoned (although the formal proclamation of the republic was on September 21). There were 12 months of 30 days each, divided into decades, in which the days were named numerically-Primidi, Duodi, and so on, up to Decadi. The remaining five days were grouped as festal days at the end of the year and known as Sansculottides. months, seasons, and festivals were arranged as follows (the table being for the years I, II, III,

The