conflict arose between those who favored ultimate annexation to the United States and the large class of property owners who were inclined to favor the establishment of a British protectorate. In the southern part of the State Larkin, the United States Consul, was secretly endeavoring to stir up a revolt against Mexico and to bring about the extension of the jurisdiction of the United States over the country. But before his schemes had attained full maturity, a rising of the American settlers in northern California took place. On June 14, 1846, a small party of Americans, aided by John C. Frémont, who was then in California at the head of an exploring expedition, seized the town of Sonoma, raised the Bear Flag, and on the Fourth of July proclaimed the independence of California. Commodore Sloat, acting under orders from the United States government, which was then preparing to go to war with Mexico, seized Monterey and Yerba Buena (San Francisco), and the conquest of the country was completed by Commodore Stockton, Colonel Frémont, and General Kearny. On Aug. 15, 1846, California was declared a Territory of the United States.

The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma, on Jan. 24, 1848, gave an impetus to immigration from all parts of the globe. The great body of gold seekers, "the Argonauts," arrived in 1849, and by the end of the year the population exceeded 100,000. Nearly all the newcomers were unmarried men, in haste to get rich. Hence the organization of an authoritative body, responsible for public order, was neglected or hindered by the influx of lawless characters. There ensued reckless speculation, extravagant living, and easy-going morality in many localities. Stable elements, however, were not wanting the mining camps had stringent laws of their own, and lynch law was resorted to in many quarters. Life and property, however, were not well secured. The people were heavily taxed without representation, and though San Francisco had been made a port of entry, no Territorial government had been granted. On Nov. 13, 1849, after several unsuccessful attempts at State making, a constitution, in which slavery was prohibited, was adopted, and on Sept. 9, 1850, California entered the Union. (For national events connected with the State's admission, see UNITED STATES, and COMPROMISE MEASURES.) In 1851 the citizens of San Francisco formed a vigilance committee to check lawlessness in that city. The committee tried offenders, banished and hanged at its discretion, and performed its duties so efficiently that in 1856 it was reorganized to meet a new outburst of public disorder and official corruption. When the Civil War broke out, California, which was thought to be contemplating secession, was exempted from furnishing troops. The Union party, however, became dominant, contributed nearly $1,500,000 to the Federal government, and sent five companies of volunteers into the field.

Since the Civil War California has experienced a magnificent economic development. The completion of the Union Pacific Railroad furthered the prosperity of the State. Both from the Eastern States and from across the Pacific the tide of immigration flowed in steadily. So considerable, indeed, did the number of Chinese immigrants become that between 1870 and 1890 the Chinese question dominated State politics and influenced national legislation. In the min

ing districts the Chinese reworked abandoned placer claims. In urban and suburban communities they became laundrymen, truck gardeners, hucksters, and domestic servants or, in the "Chinatown" which became a feature of the larger cities, pursued more varied callings. Their stolid patience and their capacity for long and sustained toil made them in one way ideal laborers for the development of a new country; but their extreme frugality and their willingness to work for a small wage made them formidable competitors of white labor. (See CHINESE IMMIGRATION.) In 1878 and 1879 Denis Kearney (q.v.), a vociferous agitator, taking advantage of the discontent prevailing among the lower classes of San Francisco, owing chiefly to the question of Chinese immigration, organized the Workingmen's party, which for a short time controlled State politics and brought into being the present constitution of California, with its many radical features. The conflict between the mining and agricultural interests over the disposition of mining débris or "slickens" and the utilization of the natural water power of the State was removed in a great measure by prolonged and elaborate legislation on the subjects of mineral débris and drainage. In 1887 a comprehensive system of irrigation was begun, which has yielded great results. The California International Midwinter Exposition, held at San Francisco in 1894, served to illustrate the progress and prosperity of the State. On April 18, 1906, an earthquake rocked the coast of California. The business section of San Francisco was almost entirely destroyed by the shock and by the fire, which broke out shortly after, and San José, Santa Rosa, and other coast towns were materially injured. (See SAN FRANCISCO EARTHQUAKE.) Before 1860 California was Democratic in national politics. Since that date it has been Republican, with the exception of the years 1880 and 1892. In State elections California has changed from Democratic to Republican repeatedly on local issues.

The hostility towards Orientals, which resulted in the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1881 (see CHINESE IMMIGRATION), manifested itself in attempts to limit the rights of the Japanese in 1906, 1909, and again in 1913. In the early years of the twentieth century large numbers of Japanese immigrated into California, where their presence soon came to be regarded as a menace, especially by organized labor. (See ORIENTAL EMIGRATION.) This feeling vented itself in a series of riots and outrages against the Japanese in San Francisco and other coast cities of California.

In consequence of the general anti-Japanese agitation, the school board of San Francisco, in October, 1906, passed an order excluding children of Japanese parents from the schools. The Japanese government protested to the gov ernment of the United States, on the ground that the rights guaranteed to its citizens by treaties with the United States had been violated. Under pressure from Washington the San Francisco school board rescinded its action, and an agreement was effected between the United States and Japan by the terms of which the latter country undertook to restrict the further emigration to the United States of Japanese laborers. In 1909 the anti-Japanese agitation was revived by rumors, more or less well founded, of a wide extension of Japanese control over the fruit and garden lands of the

State. Bills restricting the right of Orientals to own land were introduced in the Legislature in 1909 and would have become law but for pressure exerted by the Federal government. Again in 1913 drastic bills were introduced in both houses of the California Legislature, restricting the power of holding land of aliens, and of corporations of which a majority stock was held by aliens.

The Japanese government made strong protest to President Wilson against these measures. President Wilson, as a result of these protests, urged the California Legislature to amend the alien ownership bill so that they would apply to all aliens and not particularly to the Japanese. In addition to sending messages to the Governor and presiding officers of the two houses, he directed the Secretary of State to go to California for the purpose of conferring with Governor Johnson and the Legislature in regard to the proposed antialien laws. The two houses of the Legislature dropped the previous bills and gave their attention to a new bill which was framed by the Attorney-General of the State. The first provision of this bill is as follows: "All aliens eligible to citizenship under the laws of the United States may acquire, possess, enjoy, transfer, and inherit real property or any interest therein in this State in the same manner and to the same extent as citizens of the United States, except as otherwise provided by the laws of this State." The second provision provided that "all aliens other than those mentioned in section one may acquire, possess, enjoy, and transfer real property or any interest therein, in the manner and to the extent, and for the purpose prescribed by any treaty now existing between the government of the United States and the nation and country of which such alien is a citizen or subject, and not otherwise." It was held by the advocates of this bill, that, as it specifically guarded treaty rights and also affirmatively conferred rights on all aliens eligible to citizenship instead of debarring from existing rights those ineligible, it was free from objection or offense. This bill passed both houses of the Legislature on May 3, 1913, and was signed by Governor Johnson on May 18. See UNITED STATES, History.

on 40 counts, and Ruef on 126. On November 5 an election for mayor was held, and so deeply had these investigations and their results stirred the people that Dr. Edward R. Taylor, a candidate of the Citizens' Reform ticket, was elected. On Jan. 9, 1908, the Supreme Court of the State set aside the verdict against Schmitz on a technicality. The same decision released Ruef from the charge of extortion. In the same month Ruef was put on trial for bribery. The jury disagreed, and he was released on bail of $1,500,000. He was again brought to trial on Aug. 19, 1908. On November 13 Mr. Heney, who was conducting the prosecution, was shot while in the court room. The wound proved not serious, and the trial was continued. Ruef was found guilty on December 29 and was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment. Schmitz was not brought to trial again, and the indictments against him were dismissed.

In the presidential election of 1908 Taft received 214,398 votes in California, and Bryan, 127,492. The elections of 1910 were conducted in accordance with a new primary law which went into effect that year. The insurgent or progressive element in the Republican party had gained great strength and was able in the Republican Convention to force the nomination of Hiram W. Johnson, a prominent lawyer who had taken an active part in the Ruef prosecution in San Francisco. Mr. Johnson was elected with the whole Republican State ticket. In the election held on Oct. 10, 1911, 21 amendments to the constitution were submitted to the voters. These included amendments for woman suffrage, for the initiative and referendum, and for the recall, including the recall of judges. They were all carried. The initiative and referendum received a majority of about 60,000, the recall about 100,000, and woman suffrage about 3000.

California was especially conspicuous in the presidential campaign of 1912. Governor Johnson was one of the most aggressive supporters of President Roosevelt and was nominated for the vice presidency on the national Progressive ticket. A presidential primary election was held in the State on May 14, in which Roosevelt received 183,563 votes, Taft 69,345, and LaFollette 45,876. Champ Clark received a large plurality of the Democratic votes. On October 3 the State Supreme Court by its interpretation of the primary law barred from the Republican ticket the electors pledged to Mr. Taft. result of the elections showed 283,605 votes for Roosevelt, 283,444 for Wilson, 69,869 for Debs, 3943 for Taft. As two Roosevelt electors received fewer votes than Wilson electors, the electoral vote of the State was divided so that Roosevelt received 11 and Wilson 2.

The

The following is a list of Governors of the State:

MILITARY AND PROVISIONAL GOVERNORS

Col. Robert F. Stockton.
Col. John C. Frémont..
Gen. S. W. Kearny
Col. R. B. Mason
Gen. Persifer F. Smith
Gen. Bennet Riley.

Peter H. Burnett.
John McDougall.
John Bigler.
J. N. Johnson.
John B. Weller.
Milton S. Latham.

STATE GOVERNORS Democrat.

1846-47

1847

1847

1847-49

1849 1849

1849-51

1851-52

1852-56

1856-58

1858-60

1860

1860-61

.1867-71

.1871-75 .1875 .1875-79 1879-83 .1883-87 .1887 .1887-91 .1891-95

1895-99 1899-1903 1903-07 1907-11, 1911-17 ..1917

Nu

Bibliography. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States of North America, vols. xiii-xix, xxix, xxx (San Francisco, 1884-90); Muir, The Mountains of California (New York, 1894); Gold Mines and Mining in California (San Francisco, 1885); Hittell, History of California (4 vols., ib., 1885); Burnett, Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer (New York, 1880); Van Dyke, Southern California (ib., 1886); Royce, History of California (New York, 1886); Seward, The Chinese Immigration in its Social and Economic Aspects (ib., 1881); Vogdes, A Bibliography Relating to the Geology, Palaeontology, and Mineral Resources of California, with an additional list of miscellaneous publications on the country (Sacramento, 1896); J. W. Audubon, Audubon's Western Journal, 1849-50 (Cleveland, 1906); G. W. James, In and Out of the Old Missions (Boston, 1905); C. F. Holder, Life in the Open: Sport in Southern California (New York, 1906).

CALIFORNIA, GULF OF. An arm of the Pacific, separating the peninsula of Lower California from the rest of Mexico (Map: Mexico, C 4). It was originally known as the Sea of Cortés, having been discovered under his auspices and explored by himself. It is 700 miles in length, and varies in width from 30 to nearly 150 miles. It receives at its upper end the Colorado, and from the east several streams, chief of which are the Altar, Sonora, Yaqui, Mayo, and Fuerte. Both shores are bordered by highlands broken by the river valleys on the east, but on the west presenting an almost unbroken mountain wall. The coast line is irregular and forms numerous small bays. The gulf has a depth ranging from 600 feet near the head to over 6000 feet near its mouth, and contains many islands, particularly in the upper part, the largest of which are Ángel de la Guarda and Tiburón. On its west shores are the ports of San Felipe, San José, and La Paz; on its eastern, those of Mazatlan and Guaymas. There are pearl fisheries on the west coast.

CALIFORNIA, LowER, or OLD (Sp. Baja or Vieja California). A peninsula in southwest North America, forming a territory of Mexico. It extends from about lat. 22° 40' to 32° 40' N. It is bounded by California on the north, the Pacific on the west, and the Gulf of California and the Mexican State of Sonora on the east. Its total length is over 750 miles, while its width varies from about 30 to 140 miles. Area, 58,343 square miles. The surface is generally mountainous, the peninsula being practically an extension of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range region. At the centre is a plateau region interrupted by mountain peaks and short ranges, Santa Catalina, in the northern central part, attaining an altitude of over 10,000 feet. An eastern coast range borders the Gulf of California, and in places attains elevations consider

The

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF. A State University for higher education at Berkeley, Cal. The university was established in 1868, under the general provision for agricultural colleges made by the Congressional Act of 1862, which united with it the College of California, chartered in 1860. Instruction was begun in Oakland in 1869, and the university was transferred to its present location in 1873. government is vested in the regents of the University of California, a corporation, consisting of the higher State officers, the presidents of the University of California, of the State Agricultural Society, and of the Mechanics' Institute of San Francisco, all acting as members ex officio, and of 16 other members appointed by the governor of the State for 16 years, two appointments expiring every second year. The university is a State institution, receiving various State appropriations for specific purposes. From year to year the university receives about two-thirds of its income from the State, and the balance from gifts, or from the income of former gifts, from the United States, from student fees, and from miscellaneous sources.

The university comprises the following departments of instruction: in Berkeley, the colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Commerce, Agriculture, Mechanics, Mining, Civil Engineering, and Chemistry; the schools of Architecture, Jurisprudence, and Education, and the University Extension Division; on Mount Hamilton in Santa Clara County, the Lick Astronomical Department; in San Francisco, the California School of Design, Hastings College of the Law, College of Medicine, George Williams Hooper School for Medical Research, endowed with nearly $2,000,000 for the exclusive purpose of medical investigation; College of Dentistry, California College of Pharmacy; in La Jolla, near San Diego, Cal., the Scripps Institution for Biological Research; in Riverside, Cal., the Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture; at Davis, Cal., the University Farm; in Santiago, Chile, the D. O. Mills Observatory (a branch of the Lick Observatory). The College of Medicine was organized in 1873 by the absorption of the Toland Medical College. The College of Dentistry was organized in 1888. The Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton was

founded in 1875 by James Lick, who devoted $700,000 to the purpose, among other things, of constructing "a telescope superior to and more powerful than any telescope ever made." The Department of Anthropology, organized primarily for research, has conducted excavations in Egypt, Peru, and North America, and pursues linguistic and ethnological investigations. It has published a dozen volumes on American ethnology and linguistics.

The University of California makes no charge to students resident in California for courses in the colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Commerce, Agriculture, Mechanics, Mining, Civil Engineering, and Chemistry. The instruction in all the colleges is open to properly qualified persons, without distinction of sex. Students not residents of the State are charged a nominal fee for tuition. Since 1888, when its total student body numbered only 306, the university has grown very rapidly. For the year 1912-13 there were 7296 students enrolled in the University of California, of whom 4094 were academic undergraduates, 648 graduate students. 315 in the colleges of Law, Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy, 191 University Farm, 294 San Francisco Institute of Art, 2275 Summer Session of 1912; 521 double registrations, to be deducted. The registration of academic undergraduates was distributed as follows: Letters 176, Social Sciences 1306, Natural Sciences 1077, Commerce 287, Agriculture 455, Mechanics 318, Mining 132, Civil Engineering 224, Chemistry 60, Medicine 59. Of the 648 graduate students 528 were enrolled in the colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, and Natural Sciences. At the same time there were 719 professors, instructors, lecturers, assistants, and administrative officers, of whom 460 were in the academic department. Omitting the summer session, approximately one-third were women. A relatively large proportion of the students pursue the general academic courses as compared with the technical or professional courses. The steady increase in registration in the College of Agriculture is also to be noted. Of the 1913-14 intrants in the academic colleges, 20 per cent entered from colleges or secondary schools outside the State; and of the 1580 such intrants, one in five entered with advanced standing.

Since the university possesses the liberally endowed research institutions for astronomy, biology, preventive medicine, agriculture, etc., and since research is regarded as one of the chief functions of the institution, its scientific publications have become of importance. They aggregate several thousand pages yearly. The University Press issues scientific series in some 30 different fields.

The university is beautifully situated on the lower slopes of the Berkeley Hills, overlooking San Francisco Bay and the Golden Gate. The site comprises about 270 acres of land, rising at first in a gentle, and then in a bolder slope from a height of 200 feet above sea level to one of over 900 feet. East of the campus, the chain of hills continues to rise 1000 feet higher.

A permanent plan for the development of the grounds and buildings was secured through the aid of Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst, for many years a regent of the university. The plan designed by M. Emile Bénard of Paris, winner of an international competition (judged at Antwerp in 1898, and finally decided by vote of the jury in San Francisco in 1899), as developed by Mr.

John Galen Howard, professor of architecture in the university and supervising architect, recognizes the possibilities of the site and gives the amplest scope for the development of the university. The first buildings erected under the permanent plan have been the Hearst Memorial Mining Building, costing $644,000; California Hall, a building costing $270,000 and sheltering the administrative offices and the departments of history and economics; the University Library, given by Charles Franklin Doe, costing, including equipment, $882,000; Agriculture Hall, $200,000; Boalt Hall of Law, costing $160,000; the Peder Salther Gateway, $36,000; and the Jane K. Salther Campanile, a 300-foot granite bell tower, costing $200,000, and containing the Salther Bells, a set of chimes for which $25,000 was given by Mrs. Jane K. Salther; and the Greek Theatre, an open-air auditorium seating 8000 people.

The value of the buildings and grounds belonging to the University of California in 1913 was $7,886,000. Its endowment funds aggregate $5,570,000, and its total income derived from all sources was for the year ending June 30, 1913 (omitting moneys received for endowment or for buildings), $1,730,000.

The

At the end of the year 1913 the library contained 300,000 volumes, and this is increasing by more than 20,000 volumes per annum. library possesses also several hundred thousand manuscripts, which constitute the most important primary material extant for the history of California and the Pacific coast of the United States.

The presidents of the university have been Henry Durant, Daniel C. Gilman, John LeConte, W. T. Reid, E. S. Holden, Horace Davis, Martin Kellogg, and Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Ph.D., LL.D., formerly professor of Greek and comparative philology in Cornell University, who became president in 1899.

CALIFORNIA POPPY. See ESCHSCHOLTZIA. CAL'IGA (Lat.). A strong sandal-like shoe, worn by private soldiers and by the centurion in the Roman army. It was secured to the foot by straps. Its sole was thickly studded with hobnails. See also CALIGULA.

CALIGULA. A tragedy by John Crowne, published in 1693 with a dedication to the Earl of Romney and written in rhymed heroics.

CALIGULA, BRIDGE OF. A so-called bridge of wood prepared by Caligula to facilitate his passage from his palace on the Palatine Hill to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. It crossed the Forum valley, using the Temple of Augustus and the Basilica Julia as piers.

CALIGULA, GAIUS CESAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS (12-41 A.D.). Emperor of Rome from 37 to 41. He was the youngest son of Germanicus (nephew of Tiberius) by Agrippina, and was born Aug. 31, 12, at Antium, and was educated in the camp, in Germany, where the soldiers gave him the nickname Caligula, from the military shoes (caliga) which he wore. On the death of his brother Drusus he was made augur in his stead. On the death of Tiberius (37), who, it was suspected, had received foul play at his hands, it was found that he had been appointed coheir along with the grandson of Tiberius, called Tiberius Gemellus, but the Senate and the people allowed Caligula supreme and sole authority. In the beginning of his reign he appeared hardly likely to fulfill the threat of Tiberius, who had talked of educating

Caligula "for the destruction of the Roman people." He seemed lavishly generous and merciful, pardoning even those who had been the instruments of cruelty against his own family. But this ostentatious magnanimity was itself a disease, an unwholesome affectation, founded on no principle, or even humanity of heart, and coexisted with the most savage voluptuousness and lust. Consequently, when, after he had ruled eight months, illness, the result of his vicious life, had weakened his faculties, the lower qualities of his nature obtained the complete mastery. In addition to the senseless prodigality with which he commenced his career -he expended in one year the enormous wealth left by Tiberius, 720,000,000 sesterces-he began to manifest the most barbarous propensities. He banished or murdered his relatives, except his uncle Claudius and his sister Drusilla; filled Rome with executions, confiscating the estates of his victims; amused himself, while dining, by having victims tortured and slain in his presence; and uttered the wish "that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might decapitate Rome at a blow!" To vie with Xerxes, he made a bridge of ships over the bay between Baia and Puteoli (a distance of 3 Roman miles and 600 paces), and celebrated the exploit by a costly banquet on the middle of the bridge, and by collecting on it great numbers of people and causing them to be drowned. His favorite horse was stabled in a palace, fed at a marble manger, was made a member of the college of priests, and afterward raised to the consulship. As a climax to all his absurdities, he declared himself a god, and had temples erected and sacrifices offered to himself. At length a conspiracy was formed by the officers of his guards, and he was assassinated, 41 A.D. His life is told by Suetonius. Consult also Baring-Gould, The Tragedy of the Casars (London, 1892). See CHÆREA.

CALIGULA, PALACE OF. The residence of Caligula on the Palatine Hill overlooking the Forum. The palace was an extension, on the north, of the Palace of Tiberius. The super structure has entirely disappeared, and the existing ruins over the Via Nova, long ascribed to the Palace of Caligula, are now regarded as belonging rather to the second and the third centuries. A cryptoporticus, about 140 meters long, led from the structures of Caligula along the east side of Tiberius' palace to the House of Livia, and, by a branch, to the House of Augustus. In this Caligula is said to have

been murdered.

CALINGA, kå-lēn'gå. See KALINGA.

CALIPERS (corrupted from calibre; see CALIBRE). An instrument for measuring the diameter or thickness of objects. If a pair of ordinary dividers have its legs curved into bows and be applied to an object so that the extreme points of the diverging legs embrace it, the distance between the points of the two legs will be the exact thickness of the object, and this distance can be determined in the usual units of length by applying the points to a scale and reading off the space subtended by them. This is the simplest form of calipers. If the dividers have a graduated arc attached, so arranged that it records exactly the distance apart of the points of the legs, we then have a registering calipers. Calipers of this general form are made in a variety of shapes and with a variety of registering and adjusting devices for special VOL. IV.-23

purposes. The curving or bowing of the legs is done so that the measuring may be made at the maximum or meridian section of a cylindrical piece without errors that would arise from the angular relation of the two legs if these were

FIG. 1. SIMPLE CALIPERS.

straight and pivoted together. If the two legs are not in the same plane but made to pass each other, the caliper may be used to measure the inside diameter of holes or other openings. Calipers are therefore "outside" calipers, as in the illustration (Fig. 1), or "inside" calipers for the other use. Fig. 3 may be used for both outside and inside measurements. Fig. 1 shows a form of calipers for rough measurements, such as measuring the diameter of rolled rods or the thickness of rolled plates. Fig. 2 shows a form

of calipers, known as micrometer calipers, for The mechanical very precise measurements. principle embodied in the construction is that of a screw of known pitch, advancing in a fixed nut. An opening to receive the work to be measured is afforded by the backward movement of the screw, and the size of the opening is indicated by the graduations. The pitch of the screw, or distance between its threads, is 40 to the inch in this particular calipers, and the graduations on the barrel are forty to the inch, and are figured 0, 1, 2, etc., at every fourth division. As these graduations conform to the pitch of the screw, each division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw in one complete

FIG. 3. VERNIER CALIPERS.

revolution, and shows that the calipers has been opened or of an inch. The beveled edge of the thimble is graduated into 25 parts and is figured at every fifth division, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, etc. Each division when coincident with the base line of the divisions on the barrel indicates that the gauge screw has made of a revolution