firmly united when fully adult. During the Miocene the western American plateau seems to have been an arid desert, and under such conditions were developed the large, splayed feet, bereft of the useless side toes, the great sole pads, and the pouched stomach that characterize the race. At the close of the Miocene, however, there came about a steady change towards a warmer, moister climate, inducing forest growth, which put an end to camel life in North America. Meanwhile they had migrated into South America, where fossil remains of great size are found, and where the family still survives, in the modified and perhaps degenerate forms of the llamas; and also northwestward to Siberia, and thence into Central Asia, where their remains are found in the Pliocene rocks of India, but not earlier. Here the conditions were favorable, and the modern camels seem to have developed. It thus appears that North America was the original home of the Camelidæ, and that they "were derived from piglike animals quite independently of the true ruminants." For particulars as to American fossil camels, consult Wortman, Bulletin American Museum Natural History, vol. x (New York, 1898).

CAM'ELI'NA (Neo-Lat., probably from Gk. xaual, chamai, on the ground + Xlvov, linon, flax). A genus of cruciferous plants embracing about a dozen species, most of which are European. Camelina sativa is cultivated in Europe and Asia for the oil contained in the seed. The stalks contain a kind of fibre, which is sometimes used for making brooms. The plant has become introduced into the United States, where it is known as false flax, or gold of pleasure, and is considered a bad weed. See GOLD OF PLEASURE.

CAMELLIA (Neo-Lat., named after Joseph Kamel, a Moravian traveler of the seventeenth century, who first described the Camellia japonica, now Thea japonica). A species of plants of the family Theaceae, nearly hardy evergreen shrubs or trees, and natives of China, Japan, and the north of India. Camellias are now extensively cultivated as greenhouse shrubs in Europe and in the United States. Many varieties are in cultivation. The best known and most esteemed is Thea japonica, a greenhouse shrub. Its leaves are ovate-elliptical, almost acuminate and serrate shining; the flowers are without stalks, mostly solitary, large, and roselike. It is a native of Japan, and there and in China it has been carefully cultivated from time immemorial. In its wild state it has red flowers, and the red single camellia is much used by gardeners as a stock on which to graft the fine varieties, the flowers of which are generally double. The colors of the cultivated forms are various, including red, white, and yellow, and the varieties also differ much in the form and position of the petals. The flowering time is in autumn, winter, and spring. Camellias grow best in cool houses. Free access of air is of great importance, and water must be given very liberally, yet, with such caution that the soil may never remain soaked after the immediate wants of the plant are supplied. The proper soil for camellias is a loose black mold; a little sand and peat are often advantageously mixed with loam to form it. Camellias are often propagated by cuttings, or layers, but generally by grafting or inarching. The single camellia is also propagated by seed, and in this way the best stocks for grafting are procured. Of the other species of camellia, the most hardy, and one of the most

beautiful is Thea reticulata. The seeds of certain varieties, as Thea oleifera and drupifera, are used in China for the production of an olivelike oil. The true tea plant (Thea sinensis) is a close ally of the camellia. See TEA. CAMEL'OPARD. See GIRAFFE.

CAMEL'OPAR'DALIS (Gk. kaμyλowápdaλis, kamelopardalis, giraffe, literally camel-pard, from káμnλos, kamēlos, camel + пáрdαλis, pardalis, pard). A northern constellation defined by Jakob Bartsch, Kepler's son-in-law and assistant. It is situated between the polestar, Auriga, Cassiopeia, and the head of Ursa Major, and consists of stars of moderate magnitudes, forming, in imagination, the shape of a giraffe.

A

CAM'ELOT, or CALBURY, kalbĕr-i. steep hill in the parish of Queen's Camel, Somersetshire, England, 5 miles from Ilchester (Map: England, D 5), identified by tradition with Camelot, one of the capitals of the legendary King Arthur (q.v.). Others state that Camelot was the name given in the medieval romances to the city which grew up out of the permanent quarters of the second Augustan legion at Caerleon-upon-Usk.

CAMELOT. The legendary site of King Arthur's castle and court. It has been variously located in Somersetshire, at or near Winchester, Hampshire, and in Wales. Shakespeare favored the first, Tennyson and Capell the second, and Caxton the third site. The monks of Glastonbury were chiefly responsible for the "Somerset" theory, which they maintained, especially in the fourteenth century, for the purpose of attracting pilgrims and thus enriching their abbey. It is often mentioned in English literature, notably in King Lear and The Lady of Shalott.

CAMEL'S HAIR. A fabric woven from the hair of the camel, by Persians and Arabs. In early ages garments of this stuff were worn by monks for penance. It is now imported into Europe and used extensively in the manufacture of dress materials and rugs. Cow's hair is sometimes used as a substitute in the cheaper grades of so-called camel's-hair goods. A fine grade of camel's hair is used for artists' brushes. Camel's hair proper is longer than some sheep's wool and varies considerably in color, being chiefly red, white, or gray.

CAMEN, kä'men, or KAMEN. A town in the Province of Westphalia, Germany, on the Seseke, 10 miles southwest of Hamm. It is a thriving industrial centre, with coal mines, paper mills, shoe manufactories, and iron foundries. Pop., 1900, 9888; 1905, 10,429; 1910, 10,754.

CAME NÆ (Lat.). In Roman mythology, nymphs possessing the power of prophecy. They had a sacred grove in Rome, just outside the Porta Capena. (See EGERIA.) Etymologists incline now to connect the name with a root signifying brightness,' and to regard the Camena as goddesses of fountains or springs. The Romans, however, connected the name with carmen, song, and cano, to sing; hence the Roman poets often apply the name Camena to the nine Muses of Grecian myth.

CAM'EO (It. cammeo, Fr. camée, ML. camaeus, or cammeus). Gems cut in relief are called cameos. The term is applied more especially to those diminutive pieces of sculpture which are prepared from precious stones having two strata or layers of different colors, the undermost of which is left to form the background, the object to be represented being cut in the upper one.

True cameos were probably not made before

the third century B.C., though in very early times we find the backs of seals decorated with figures in relief; so especially in the scarabæi, seals decorated on the back with the sacred beetle of Egypt. As precious stones were used in the Orient and among the Greeks after the conquests of Alexander for many decorative purposes, the Greek artistic sense sought to raise this decoration to a higher plane, and this seems to have led to the carving of the gems into reliefs. At this period cameos were very exten sively used, not only as personal ornaments, but in cups, vases, candelabra, and other objects of domestic luxury. Pateræ and other vessels were frequently worked out of a single stone, upon which were exhibited a whole series of figures of the most exquisite workmanship. Many of the antique cameos which have been preserved are wonderfully beautiful, both in design and execution. Of the Alexandrian cameos, probably the finest is the "Tazza Farnese," a shallow dish (8 inches in diameter), cut from a single sardonyx, now in the National Museum at Naples. Within, this dish shows an allegorical design, relating to a flood of the Nile; outside, it bears a Gorgon on an ægis (q.v.). Other very fine specimens of the early period are the Gonzaga cameo in St. Petersburg and a companion in Vienna, containing the portraits in profile of a man and a woman. These are commonly said to be portraits of Ptolemy II and his Queen, Arsinoë, but Furtwängler held that they represented Alexander the Great and Olympias (see Plate 53, in his work named at the close of this article). Of cameos of the Roman time, many fine specimens are to be found in the continental museums. Especially noteworthy are the Gemma Augustea in Vienna, and the Sainte Chapelle onyx in Paris: both show Roman emperors, Augustus and Tiberius, triumphing over barbarians (see below). Very celebrated is the "Cupid and Psyche" formerly in the Marlborough collection, now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, by Tryphon, who is supposed to have lived in the time of Augustus. Many of these cameos are of surprising and, in modern times, unequaled size and perfection. Cameos do not seem to have been made in mediæval times; but the art was revived in Italy, under the auspices of the Medici, and the production of cameos, both in pietra dura and in shell, has there become a branch of art manufacture of considerable importance. Impressions from antique cameos in glass, sulphur, porcelain, and other materials are produced in many places and, for artistic purposes, possess all the value of the originals.

The manufacture of cameos from artificial substances was not unknown to the ancients. One of the most beautiful specimens of an imitation of cameo in glass is the famous Barberini or Portland vase, now in the British Museum. The ground is blue, the figures, which are in low relief, being of a delicate, half-transparent white. (See PORTLAND VASE.) Another example is a beautiful vase, similar in color, known as the Blue Glass Vase, now in the Naples Museum, the figures of which represent a Bacchanalian sacrifice. Consult Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii: Its Life and Art, pp. 415-416 (New York, 1902). The vase was found in a tomb, outside the Herculaneum Gate at Pompeii. Many fragments of the same kind of manufacture exist in other cabinets, and from it the modern Wedgwood ware was imitated.

A shell cameo is a cutting in relief on a precious stone or a shell. It is opposed in meaning to intaglio, which signifies a cutting into the stone or shell. In intaglio work, furthermore, only gems of a uniform color are used, while in cameo engraving or cutting it is desirable to choose such stones or shells as possess layers of varying colors, such as sardonyx, onyx, agate, or tropical sea shells. These differing tints are skillfully utilized by intelligent engravers, so that at different depths of the cutting very beautiful and effective gradations of color are obtained. Shell, perhaps, gives the most delicate results, owing to the nearness of the color to that of flesh, and the general use made of the human figure and head as subjects for cameo engraving.

Inasmuch as Egypt was the birthplace, as it were, of belief in amulets, charms, and phylacteries of all kinds, it naturally came to pass that it was the earliest country to develop and to encourage the production of these emblems which, for the individual, possessed a magical and religious significance. From the time of the dynasties of the first Pharaohs to the period of the domination of the Romans, the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, men and women, all wore about the neck, on the finger, or hung somewhere on their garments, cut or engraved gems of a talismanic character, which also served in some sort as a personal seal. It is safe to say that no country of ancient times has produced in such profusion precious stones in relief and in intaglio. It was in the Greek and Roman period that the cameo reached its perfection. The century of Scopas, Praxiteles, Lysippus, and Apelles produced an artist in gems whom all antiquity praises, but from whom there has not come down to us a single signed work. This artist is Pyrgoteles. Pliny and many others speak of him as the ablest engraver of all time, and place him in the same rank as the above-mentioned sculptors and painters. Pyrgoteles probably engraved several portraits of Alexander in cameo and intaglio, though none can be authenticated. Although cameo is sculpture in miniature, we see by this that it engaged the talents of really great artists. Among the largest examples of ancient cameo work is the Sainte Chapelle agate in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (of sardonyx, 12 × 101⁄2 inches), representing the apotheosis of Augustus and the reception of Germanicus, after his return from Germany, by Tiberius, and the Vienna onyx (85% X 71⁄2 inches), bearing, in addition to other figures, an allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus. These surpass, in size and delicacy of execution, the best modern productions in this art. See GEMS; AUGUSTUS, APOTHEOSIS OF.

Bibliography. Agostini, Gemma et Sculpturæ Antique Depictæ ab L. Augustino (Paris, 1685); Zanetti, Le gemme antiche (Venice, 1750); Marsh, Cameo Cutting (London, 1891); Thompson, "On the Working of Shell Cameos" in Art Journal (ib., 1898); Davenport, Cameos (ib., 1900); and especially Furtwängler, Die Antiken Gemmen (Leipzig and Berlin, 1900).

CAMERA (Lat., vault, from Gr. kamara, a vaulted inclosure, hence a chamber or room), IN. Behind closed doors, the phrase to describe judicial proceedings held in secret. The inquisitorial process of the civil law and of the ecclesiastical courts of England and the Continent was often and may yet in certain classes