the most beautiful is the famous love song, with interlocked stanzas, beginning "A la claire fontaine." Like "Le pont d'Avignon," it is a transplanted flower of purest primitive French poetry. The music and verse of such old songs now fill an humbler but no less cherished part in French-Canadian life. Though less known than before to race patriotism and race politics, they soothe the remoter village dweller and the toiler in field and furrow with memories springing from life in Normandy and Brittany of more than two hundred years ago, when the daily round of the lowly was not widely different from that of the Quebec habitant to-day.

When Canada passed under British rule by the Treaty of Paris (1763), the French spirit in the colony responded instantly to the summons for a contest of civilizations, when the armed struggle which had been going on for 150 years was changed to political rivalry under one flag. The French language and civil and religious rights were preserved, though the conflict did not cease until Confederation in 1867, and has echoes to-day among the Nationalists in the Province of Quebec. French Canada, awakened by the change of 1763, produced her first native-born writers, among them several historians of their country. The earliest was Michel Bibaud, with the Histoire du Canada sous la domination française (Montreal, 1837), and the Histoire du Canada sous la domination anglaise (Montreal, 1844). A third volume of his history appeared in 1878, some years after Bibaud's death. In 1845 appeared the first volume of the famous Histoire du Canada by François Xavier Garneau (q.v.) which was finished in 1852. Though written with great ability and with distinction of style, Garneau's work is largely a plea for and vindication of his race, and lacks the impartiality of history, though regarded by the French as their standard authority. Among the influences that emphasized the resolute and contentious attitude of French Canada there should be mentioned the fiery speeches of Louis Joseph Papineau (q.v.), whose eloquence responded to the aspirations of his compatriots in their favorite literary form. Other notable histories were written by J. B. A. Ferland, a priest and professor of Laval University; the Abbé Faillon, a Sulpician, of French birth but long resident in Canada; Louis Turcotte, of the library of the Quebec Legislature; Benjamin Sulte (q.v.), journalist and poet; the Abbé H. R. Casgrain (q.v.), a brilliant though sometimes prejudiced writer, whose Pélerinage au pays d'Evangeline, a defense of the exiled Acadians, was crowned by the French Academy in 1888; and the Abbé Tanguay, sometime professor of archæology in Laval University and author of the Dictionnaire généalogique des familles canadiennes, a work of immense learning and research. Thomas Chapais, eminent as an orator and publicist, wrote admirable monographs on Jean Talon (1904) and Montcalm (1911). The latter is a fine tribute of historical justice to a hero who has suffered in the estimation of his compatriots less for his faults than for his honorable defeat.

French-Canadian writers have excelled in the essay, the biography, the descriptive sketch, and in political and literary criticism. Faucher de Saint-Maurice oro served in Mexico under Maximilian, wrote de Québec à Mexico, Les Provinces Maritimes, and many other volumes of de

scription. Etienne Parent, the first editor of Le Canadien, was a writer of much distinction and power on economic, religious, and philosophic questions. Sir James MacPherson Le Moine wrote a large number of legendary and historical sketches, together with scientific monographs, both in French and in English, as L'Ornithologie du Canada (1860); Quebec Past and Present (1876); Canadian Heroines (1887); Le premier gouverneur anglais de Québec (1891); and The Avi-Fauna of the Province of Quebec (1902). Arthur Buies, the editor of several journals, published numerous volumes of popular chroniques, beginning in 1871, besides Le Saguenay et la vallée du Lac Saint-Jean (1880) and L'Outaouais supérieur (1889). Laurent Olivier David, journalist and senator, is considered by many to be the most brilliant of contemporary prose writers in the Province of Quebec. Independent in politics, an outspoken opponent of clerical interference in elections, as was proved by his Le clergé canadien (1896), a subtle and lucid exponent of contemporary life and character in French Canada, his works command a high degree of admiration. His Patriotes de 1837-38 (1884) and Les deux Papineau (1896) are a defense of the French-Canadian rebellion of 1837. He has also written Biographies et portraits (1876); Mes contemporains (1894); Laurier et son temps (1905); and Vingt biographies (1910). Among other essayists and biographers trained in the school of journalism are Alfred Duclos DeCelles and Narcisse Eutrope Dionne. The former in 1896 gained the highest prize of the French Academy of Political and Moral Sciences for his Etats-Unis: origine, institutions, développements. He later wrote other historical and political works and contributed biographies of Sir Louis Hippolyte Lafontaine and Sir Georges Etienne Cartier to the Makers of Canada Series. The latter's Life of Jacques Cartier (1889); Life of Samuel Champlain (1891 et seq.); Québec et Nouvelle France (1909), and other historical works are written in lucid and finished style. The names of Joseph Charles Taché, Joseph E. Cauchon and Hector Fabre are famous in French-Canadian journalism. Later but equally eminent as journalists are Henri Bourassa, also notable as an orator; Omer Héroux, and the Abbé J. A. Damours. During the first 14 years of the twentieth century the number of journalistic and historical writings relating to French Canada greatly increased, but it is impossible here to do more than refer the reader to the biographies in this work and the bibliography to this article. Splendidly dramatic and of international recognition was the epitome of French-Canadian history presented in the Quebec Tercentenary pageants and celebrations of 1908, a complete and vivid account of which was given by the Abbé Joseph Camille Roy (b. 1870), a professor in Laval University, in Les fétes du troisième centenaire de Québec (1911).

In fiction the pioneer work is Philippe de Gaspé's Les anciens canadiens (1863), which faithfully mirrored the old régime when seigneur, curé, censitaire, and voyageur mingled in a life of feudal loyalty, religious zeal, and stirring adventure, shocked often into rare heroism by an appeal for protection or by the imminence of massacre. De Gaspé was succeeded in the same field by Joseph Marmette, who wrote François de Bienville (1870), which passed through several editions; L'Intendant Bigot

the Arctic Ocean, and later crossed the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. The narrative of these two perilous explorations was published under the title Voyages on the River St. Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans (1801; reprinted, New York, 1902). Equally important is Alexander Henry's Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories in 17601776 (1809). After heroic efforts and a bloody conflict, the Earl of Selkirk established a colony in the Red River valley, now the flourishing Province of Manitoba. While in Montreal he wrote his Sketch of the British Fur Trade in North America (1816). From Joseph Bouchette came two notable topographical descriptions of the Canadas (181532). The record of the adventures and explorations of these men and of Daniel W. Harmon, Paul Kane, and later, J. W. Tyrrell, who conducted an exploratory survey of nearly 5000 miles through the country lying between Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay, is of the deepest literary interest. Tyrrell wrote Across the SubArctics of Canada (1897; 3d ed., 1908). L. J. Burpee's The Search for the Western Sea (1907) is a fascinating narrative of travel and exploration. The earlier of these works were published in London; but by 1815 histories were beginning to issue from the Canadian press. We may cite William Smith's History of Canada (1815), and David Thompson's War of 1812. Interesting histories of that war were also written by Major John Richardson and Gilbert Auchinleck.

The struggle for responsible government in Upper Canada gave rise to a mass of controversial writing of a strongly partisan character, the Tory or oligarchical side being represented by Sir John Beverley Robinson and Bishop Strachan, and the Reform side by Robert Fleming Gourlay and William Lyon Mackenzie. After the union of the two Canadas in 1841 the struggle for responsible government was renewed, the literary protagonists on the Tory and Reform sides respectively being Egerton Ryerson and Robert Baldwin Sullivan, a brilliant and versatile Irishman who had risen to eminence in public life. The speeches of Joseph Howe, poet, journalist, and the greatest of Canadian political orators in English, were published in 1858. Howe was for many years a member of the Parliament of Nova Scotia, and was also editor of the Nova Scotian, for which he wrote two series of popular sketches, called "Western and Eastern Rambles" and "The Club." The former is based on observations made in travels through North America; the latter is an imitation of the Noctes Ambrosianæ (q.v.). To the Nova Scotian Thomas Chandler Haliburton, a native of Nova Scotia and a judge of the Supreme Court, contributed papers known as "The Clockmaker,” or “Sayings and Doings of Sam Slick of Slickville" (1837). The hero is a Yankee peddler into whose mouth is placed much telling criticism. The sketches were widely read in America and England and were translated into several languages. Oddly enough, though the Canadian humorist has had few successors in his own country, he is the father of dialect humor in the United States. Haliburton also wrote the standard history of Nova Scotia and several books descriptive of his country.

The union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, and the subsequent federation of all the British provinces in North America except Newfoundland, mark a new era for Canada. A feel

ing of nationality unknown in earlier times found impassioned expression in the verse of Charles G. D. Roberts, especially in the poem beginning, "O Child of Nations, giant-limbed!" The constitutional questions that came to the front after 1840 created a press which compares favorably with that of any English-speaking country. Of journalists, Goldwin Smith, who settled in Toronto in 1871, was known throughout the world for his work in political history and criticism; the editorial writings of George Brown were a potent factor in Canadian politics, as also were those of John Neilson and Robert Christie in the English journals of Quebec. Later journalists of eminence include such names as George Stewart, for some time editor of the Quebec Chronicle, William J. Rattray, Edward Farrer (b. 1850), sometime editorial writer on the Toronto Mail and the Toronto Globe, Sir Hugh Graham, Sir John S. Willison, James A. Macdonald, and William F. Maclean, editor of the Toronto World. speeches of the well-known statesmen Sir Charles Tupper, Alexander Mackenzie, Sir John A. Macdonald, Sir Alexander T. Galt, Edward Blake, Sir Richard Cartwright, and Sir Wilfrid Laurier form a body of political discussion of which much has an enduring literary character. Especially noteworthy is the bilingual oratory of the last-named statesman, who became not only the most eloquent speaker of his country in French and English, but created a new standard for his racial compatriots, combining the emotional appeal of the French-Canadian with the reasoned presentment of constitutional precedents and principles immemorially known in English-speaking legislatures.

The

In the larger English-Canadian histories, with few exceptions, the abundant material available does not receive an artistic setting. In Robert Christie's History of Lower Canada (6 vols., 1849-55) the narrative of British rule is brought down to the Union of 1841. William Kingsford's History of Canada (10 vols., 1887-97) is the standard work, accurate in the main, but with few attractions of style. John Charles Dent's The Last Forty Years (1881) begins with the Union of 1841 and is written with grace and lucidity, as is also his interesting Story of the Upper Canada Rebellion (1886). James Hannay's History of Acadia (1879) modifies commonly received notions of English cruelty in the expulsion of the French. Col. William C. H. Wood's The Fight for Canada (1904) has been pronounced the best historical work written in the Dominion. The history of the Canadian Northwest was narrated by Alexander Ross (1783-1856), Alexander Begg, George Bryce, and G. M. Adam. Smaller Canadian histories were written by John McMullen, George Bryce, W. H. Withrow, and Charles G. D. Roberts. Sir John Bourinot published several books on Canadian history, literature, and government. Alpheus Todd's (1821-84) Parliamentary Government in England (1867–69) and Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies (1880) are widely known. In the field of local historical research, Arthur George Doughty (in collaboration with G. W. Parmelee) is the author of a scholarly and authoritative work on the siege of Quebec. More widely known are his The Fortress of Quebec, 1608-1903 (1904) and The Cradle of New France (1908). Alexander Begg and R. E. Gosnell wrote excellent histories of British Columbia.

Among essayists, biographers, and mis

cellaneous writers are Nicholas Flood Davin, whose Culture and Practical Power was praised by Gladstone; S. E. Dawson, known for his fine study of Tennyson's Princess (1884), his St. Lawrence Basin and its Border Lands (1905), and A Plea for Literature (1908); Sir William Dawson, a geologist and naturalist, who aimed in many books to reconcile science and religion; Sir Daniel Wilson, an eminent archæologist and literary critic, author of Prehistoric Man (1863; 3d ed., 1876), and Caliban, the Missing Link (1873); Rev. W. H. Withrow, author of The Catacombs of Rome and other books; Rev. G. M. Grant, author of Ocean to Ocean (1873), Advantages of Imperial Federation (1889), and of several other books; T. A. Haultain, author of brilliant literary brochures, as A Critique of Cardinal Newman's Exposition of the Illative Sense, A Fragmentary Dialogue on Love and Religion, The Mystery of Golf; J. Castell Hopkins, editor of Canada; an Encyclopædia of the Country (6 vols., 1897-1900), who wrote lives of Sir John Thompson, Gladstone, Queen Victoria, and Edward VII, besides many political pamphlets and articles; W. D. LeSueur, the author of notable essays on Matthew Arnold and Sainte-Beuve; Rev. John Maclean, whose books, as Our Savage Folk (1895), deal chiefly with the Indians; J. M. Oxley, the writer of delightful boy stories; and George Stewart, who wrote excellently of Alcott and Emerson. In philosophical criticism the writings of John Watson, and in politics and economics those of John Beattie Crozier, hold a high place.

The material progress and increased political importance of Canada since 1900 have gone far to change the quality and outlook of the literary product. Historical, biographical, and economic works have multiplied, the majority springing from a thoughtful consideration of Canada's new course of development, with its possibilities and dangers. In political biography the best works are Charles Lindsey's Life and Times of William Lyon Mackenzie (1862), Joseph Pope's Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald (1894), A. D. DeCelles' Papineau and Cartier (1904), John Lewis's George Brown (1906), Sir J. Bourinot's Lord Elgin (1905), Sir J. S. Willison's Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1903), J. W. Longley's Joseph Howe (1905), Miss J. N. McIlwraith's Sir Frederick Haldimand (1904), and A. Shortt's Lord Sydenham (1908). These biographies, the majority of which are included in the Makers of Canada Series (Toronto), are in large part serious studies of constitutional principles whose historic background is not far removed from rebellion and bitter partisan struggle. Other works expressing conflicting views of Canada's present and future are The Kingdom of Canada (1908) and The Kingdom Papers (1911) by John S. Ewart, The Struggle for Imperial Unity (1909), by G. T. Denison, and Essays in Politics (1909), by Andrew Macphail. For a full list of authors and books on Imperial federation and allied political and economic problems, see the bibliography to this article, and CANADA.

The first Canadian novels depicted phases of the soldier's and settler's life. John Galt, a Scottish novelist who lived three years in Canada, published, on his return home, Lawrie Todd, or the Settlers in the Woods (1830), giving graphic accounts of frontier life. Major John Richardson wrote Wacousta, or the Prophecy (1832), an exciting romance based on the siege of Detroit by VOL. IV.-29

Pontiac. For nearly half a century following there was little or no Canadian fiction in English, until William Kirby, author of The Golden Dog, a Legend of Quebec (1877), opened a field from which some of his successors have abundantly reaped. James de Mille wrote The Dodge Club (1869), a humorous book of travel, and over 30 books of fiction, of which the best are Helene's Household (1868), The American Baron (1870), and the posthumous A Strange Manuscript found in a Copper Cylinder (1888). Mrs. Mary Catherwood in The Romance of Dollard (1889) and several other novels recalled stirring episodes of Canadian history. G. M. Adam's (in collaboration with Ethelwyn Wetherald) An Algonquin Maiden (1886), John Mackie's Devil's Playground (1894), and Mrs. K. E. Hayes's Prairie Potpourri (1895) are portrayals of Indian life and the far Northwest. Mrs. J. B. Hammond's The Unexpected Bride (1895) and Miss B. L. Macdonell's Tales of the Soil respectively treat of Canadian rural life and Canadian legends. Miss M. R. Charlton is said to have been a pioneer in the fairy tale with her Wonder Web of Stories (1892) and With Printless Foot (1894). Miss K. M. Barry depicted phases of modern life in Ottawa. Humor, inconspicuous in Canadian literature since Haliburton, reappeared in The American Girl in London and other novels of Mrs. S. J. Cotes, The Major's Big Talk Stories (1881) of F. B. Crofton, and with notable raciness and richness in the Literary Lapses (1910), Nonsense Novels (1911), and Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (1912) by Stephen B. Leacock, professor of political economy in McGill University. In the Madonna of a Day (1896) Miss Lily Dougall drew a portrait of the modern woman. Equally brilliant is her Beggars All (1891). Tales and sketches by Mrs. S. F. Harrison, Miss R. Barry, Miss J. N. McIlwraith, Mrs. M. A. Sadlier, and W. McLennan depict various phases of Canadian life. Miss M. M. Saunders's Beautiful Joe (1894), the autobiography of a dog, had an immense sale throughout the United States, Canada, and Britain. Mrs. L. M. McDonald's (b. 1877) novels of Prince Edward Island life are widely read. Sir Gilbert Parker, working mainly in the vein of French-Canadian fiction opened up by William Kirby, ranks as the most distinguished Canadian novelist. Of other writers of fiction the most notable are C. W. Gordon (Ralph Connor), Agnes C. Laut, Ernest Thompson Seton (the nature writer), W. A. Fraser, Mrs. Leprohon (Rosanna Eleanor Mullins), Mrs. Catherine Parr Traill, Norman Duncan, William Douw Lighthall, and Arthur Stringer.

The earliest writers of English-Canadian verse are Oliver Goldsmith (a collateral descendant of the Irish poet and author of The Rising Village), Robert Sweeny, Adam Kidd, and Mrs. Susannah Moodie (d. 1885). Some of Mrs. Moodie's verses are found in the sketches entitled Roughing it in the Bush and Life in the Clearings (1853). Charles Heavysege is the author of a remarkable tragedy called Saul (1857). Other eminent names are Charles Sangster, Isabella Valancy Crawford, known for beautiful lyrics such as "The Master-Builder" and "The Axe of the Pioneer"; George Frederick Cameron, who wrote "What reck we of the creeds of men?"; Charles Mair; Archibald Lampman, a poet of great promise who, like G. F. Cameron, died young; C. G. D. Roberts, W. W. Campbell, Bliss Carman, Freder

ick G. Scott, Sir Gilbert Parker, Duncan Campbell Scott, Joseph Howe, Sarah Anne Curzon, John Reade, Alexander McLachlan, Arthur Weir, John Hunter Duvar, E. Pauline Johnson, the gifted daughter of a Mohawk chief, and Marjorie L. C. Pickthall. Dr. W. H. Drummond's poems of the habitant, written in a dialect halfway between French and English, are unique and highly popular. Robert Service (b. 1876) wrote stirring ballads of struggle and adventure in the Far West and the Yukon Territory. A list of poets and writers of fiction will be found in the anthologies and other works of reference in the bibliography.

Bibliography. The scattered material for the history of French-Canadian and EnglishCanadian literature may be found in the published Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada (Ottawa, 1883 et seq.). The volume for 1893 contains a valuable paper by Sir J. G. Bourinot, "Canada's Intellectual Strength and Weakness," published in book form (Montreal, 1893). The volume for 1905 contains a list of publications ed. by Narcisse E. Dionne, from the beginning of Canadian history. Consult also: Henry James Morgan, Bibliotheca Canadensis (Ottawa, 1867) and Canadian Men and Women of the Time (Toronto, 1898; new ed., 1912); Edmund Lareau, Histoire de la littérature canadienne (1874); Philéas Gagnon, Essai de bibliographie canadienne (Montreal, 1895); C. G. V. ab der Halden, Etude de littérature canadiennefrançaise (Paris, 1904); Horning and Burpee, Bibliography of Canadian Fiction (Toronto, 1904); Canadian Annual Review (Toronto, 1903 et seq.), which contains lists of Canadian authors and their latest works. For verse anthologies consult: Rand, Treasury of Canadian Verse (New York, 1900); Stedman, Victorian Anthology (Boston, 1895); Lighthall, Songs of the Great Dominion, "Windsor Series" (London, 1889), and Canadian Poems and Lays, "Canterbury Poets Series" (London, 1891); and Gagnon, Chansons populaires du Canada (Quebec, 1865). See CANADA; AMERICAN LITERATURE; ENGLISH LITERATURE.

CANADIAN PERIOD. See ORDOVICIAN

CANADIAN RIVER. A river formed by the union of several branches flowing east from the Taos and Culebra range of the Rocky Mountains, at the border between New Mexico and Colorado, in Colfax Co., N. Mex., in long. 105° 20′ W., and about 100 miles northeast of Santa Fe (Map: United States, Western Part, F 3). By local usage in New Mexico it is termed Red River. It flows nearly due south to lat. 35° 20′ N., then east across the panhandle of Texas and into Oklahoma, where at Taloga it turns southeast, to a point about 6 miles south of Purcell, whence it flows east and northeast and joins the Arkansas River, of which it is the chief tributary, at Tamaha. It is nearly 900 miles long, but, owing to closely paralleling other rivers in the lower part of its course, it drains a relatively small territory. The volume of water varies greatly in the wet and dry

seasons.

CANAIGRE, kå-nā'ger (Fr.) (Rumex hymenosepalus). A tannin-producing plant related to the docks and quite resembling the sour dock. It grows wild in the southwestern United States. The stem is nearly smooth, often red

dish in color, grows from 1 to 3 feet high, and terminates in a branched flower stalk. The leaves vary from about 2 to 16 inches in length. The roots are tuberous, somewhat resembling small sweet potatoes, and are clustered in an upright position 3 to 12 inches below the surface of the ground. The value of the plant consists in the amount of tannin contained in the roots. The tannin content in the air-dried tubers varies from about 10 to 35 per cent, a quantity exceeding that in any other tannin-producing plant. The rapid decrease in the supply of wild canaigre has caused its culture to be undertaken in the Southwest, but this enterprise has not assumed large proportions. It is propagated mainly from the roots, one ton being required to plant an acre. The land is prepared and cultivated as for other root crops. Harvesting may begin after the plant has made its full period of growth, but it has been found that the percentage of tannin increases as the roots lie dormant in the ground. In the wild state the plant makes its growth during the winter and early spring, and by early June has seeded and the tops are dead. About 15 tons of roots per acre is an average yield. The preparation for the market consists in slicing the roots and drying them in the sun. The extract obtained is especially adapted for tanning leather for uppers, fine saddlery, etc. Consult: Arizona Experiment Sta. Bul. 2 (1896).

CANAL (Fr., from Lat. canalis, water pipe). An artificial channel for water, constructed for drainage, irrigation, supplying water power, or purposes of navigation. The design and construction of canals of large size are much the same whatever their purpose may be. In this article the general questions of design and construction for all kinds of canals will be discussed, but for specific examples of canals for other purposes than navigation the articles on DRAINAGE, IRRIGATION, and WATER POWER should be consulted.

Design and Construction. The two points which have mainly to be considered in canal design are the cross section of the channel and its longitudinal profile. Considering the longitudinal profile first, it will readily be understood that a canal cannot, like a road or railway, adapt itself to the irregularities of the country by means of ascending and descending grades, but must consist of one or more practically level sections or reaches. When two or more reaches are required at different levels, the adjoining extremities of two reaches cannot be, for obvious reasons, connected by a grade in the channel. The various means for making such connections are described in the following section; but the fact which needs to be noted here is that, since the profile in the canal must consist of a series of level reaches at different elevations, care has to be exercised to select a route which will provide long reaches and consequently few changes in level. As in railway work, however, depressions in the ground may be crossed by embankments or other structures upon which the channel is carried.

Another matter which has to be carefully provided for is a supply of water to the highest reach, or summit level, as it is usually called; the reason for this being that this reach is constantly losing its water to the reaches below, and this loss must be supplied by streams or reservoirs so located as to discharge into the summit level. Distances being equal, a canal