1. CASSAVA or MANIOC (Manihot utilissima). 2. CARNATION (Dianthus Caryophyllus). 3. SENNA (Cassia sp.).

4. CALAMITIES AS RESTORED.

5. CARDAMON SEED (Elettaria Cardamomum).

6. CASHEW NUT (Anacardium occidentale).

He

CARNEGIE, kär-něgʻi, ANDREW (1835-1919). An American manufacturer and philanthropist, born in Dunfermline, Fifeshire, Scotland. came to the United States in 1848 and worked as a weaver's assistant in a cotton factory at Allegheny, Pa., for little more than one dollar a week. At the age of 14 he became a messenger boy in the Pittsburgh (Pa.) office of the Ohio Telegraph Company. He soon learned telegraphy, entered the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and received a position as a telegraph operator. He advanced by successive promotions until he was superintendent of the Pittsburgh division. His interest in the organization of the Woodruff Sleeping Car Company laid the foundation of his fortune, and careful investments in oil lands near Oil City, Pa., increased his means. During the Civil War he rendered valuable services to the War Department as superintendent of military railroads and government telegraph lines in the East. After the war he entered actively into the development of ironworks of various kinds, and established at Pittsburgh the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Iron Works. In 1868 he introduced into this country the Bessemer process of making steel. In 1888 he was the principal owner of the Homestead Steel Works and had a controlling interest in seven other large steel plants. His interests were consolidated in 1899 in the Carnegie Steel Company, which was merged into the United States Steel Corporation in 1901, when he retired from business.

Mr. Carnegie's benefactions have exceeded in amount those of any other American. In 1912 alone he gave $130,403,000. Among his donations may be mentioned: to the Carnegie Institute of Technology (q.v.), Pittsburgh, $10,000,000; to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (q.v.), $15,000,000; (for his library benefactions, see LIBRARIES ;) to universities of Scotland, $10,000,000; to the fund for the benefit of the employees of the Carnegie Steel Company, $5,000,000. In 1902 he gave $10,000,000 (more than that amount since) to found the Carnegie Institution (q.v.) of Washington, D.C. In 1904 Mr. Carnegie established what has been termed the "Hero fund," of $5,000,000. (See CARNEGIE HERO FUND COMMISSION.) For the United Kingdom he established a hero fund in 1908. He built a Palace of Peace for the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague, besides creating (1910) the $10,000,000 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (q.v.); and he built a home for the International Bureau of American Republics in Washington, D. C. In 1912 he announced that he had given all his fortune except $25,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation (organized in New York, Nov. 10, 1911). He was lord rector of St. Andrews University in 1901, 1902, and 1906, and of Aberdeen University in 1912. Mr. Carnegie's publications include: An American Four-in-Hand in Britain (1883); Round the World (1884); Triumphant Democracy (1886); The Gospel of Wealth (1900); Empire of Business (1902); James Watt (1905); Problems of To-Day (1909). Consult Alderson, Andrew Carnegie: The Man and his Work (New York, 1902).

CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE. A fund created by gift of Andrew Carnegie with an endowment of

$10,000,000, the income of which is to be expended for the hastening of the abolition of international war. The organization of the endowment was formally effected Dec. 14, 1910, when the control of the fund was vested in a board of trustees under the presidency of Elihu Root. The formulation of a definite programme was left to the discretion of the trustees. The work of the endowment is organized under three divisions: the Division of Intercourse and Education, the Division of Economics and History, and the Division of International Law, under the directorship, respectively, of President Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor John B. Clark, and Dr. James Brown Scott. The Division of Intercourse and Education maintains, at the various capitals, agencies for the gathering of information with respect to international policies, and undertakes the work of promoting international good will. The division has arranged for the exchange of eminent scholars and men of letters between the several nations, and has interested itself in the propaganda for international peace through organizations already existing. It has been the aim of the endowment not to supplant such organizations, but to support them in their activities and to bring about more thorough coöperation between them. The American Peace Society, reorganized so as to serve as a representative of all the peace societies of the United States, receives from the endowment a liberal subvention, with which to assist its constituent societies in their work. Foreign peace societies are also subsidized through the Bureau International Permanent de la Paix at Bern and the Office Centrale des Associations Internationales at Brussels. A number of publications, both American and foreign, receive subventions from the endowment. Direct propaganda by the endowment is carried on through the Conciliation Internationale, with headquarters at Paris (American branch, the American Association for International Conciliation).

The Division of Economics and History has for its field an investigation of the conditions, political, social, and economic, having a bearing upon questions of peace and war. The programme of the division was worked out at a conference of scholars held at Bern in August, 1911. Arrangements were made for a large number of studies, to be conducted in the several countries by competent resident scholars. These studies are designed to furnish a solid basis for future propaganda work of the endowment.

The Division of International Law is intended to deal with the legal elements in international relations. Its work is primarily that of research into the principles of the existing body of international law, with a view to extending their application to an increasing range of international disputes. A further object of the division is the elaboration of programmes for submission to future Hague conferences. division seeks to stimulate a broader interest among the legal profession in questions of international law. Consult Year Books of the Endowment (Washington, 1911 et seq.). See WORLD PEACE MOVEMENT.

The

CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING. A corporation chartered in 1906 primarily to administer a fund transferred to five trustees in 1905 by Andrew Carnegie for the purpose of providing retiring allowances for the teachers in universities, colleges, and technical schools in

the United States, Canada, and Newfoundland. The fund consisted of $10,000,000 of 5 per cent first mortgage bonds of the United States Steel Corporation, to which Mr. Carnegie in 1908 added another $5,000,000 so that state and colonial institutions of the same standing as the above might be included. Colleges and universities which desire to be placed on the list of institutions to whose teaching staff pensions may be granted must meet certain requirements of educational standard, administration, and endowment. Hence the foundation, while established to administer the pension fund, has in the short period of its existence exercised an all-powerful influence on institutions of higher learning. The standards of the entrance requirements have thus been raised, and the functions of college and university have been defined; restrictive sectarian or denominational tests and control debar an institution from being placed on the accepted list. Each annual report takes up some educational topic of general and national interest for discussion. Among these have been the following topics: college entrance requirements and the relations of college and secondary schools; standards in professional education; college advertising; education and politics; sham universities, etc. Considerable influence has also been exercised through its special bulletins, the most important of these being the bulletins on Medical Education in the United States and Canada (1910), and Medical Education in Europe (1912), which have already produced vital reforms in the professional preparation of doctors in this continent. Similar reports are to be made in other branches of professional training. The foundation also conducted in 1913 a survey of educational conditions in Vermont and formulated a scheme for a reconstruction of the system. The exchange of secondary school teachers between the United States and Prussia is another of the activities undertaken by the foundation. Fruitful work in the interests of educational progress is promised as a result of a further grant from Mr. Carnegie of $1,250,000 for the establishment of a division of Educational Research.

The administrative officers of the foundation are Henry S. Pritchett, president; Robert A. Franks, treasurer; and Clyde Furst, secretary. CARNEGIE HERO FUND COMMISSION. A body formed in 1904 for the administration of a fund of $5,000,000 given by Andrew Carnegie. The general purpose of the fund is to aid financially, until able to return to work, those following peaceful vocations who have been injured in heroic efforts to save human life. In case of death, the widow and children or other dependents are to be provided for until the wife remarries and the children reach a self-supporting age. The commission is also permitted to grant sums of money to such persons as they select for heroic deeds, each case to be judged on its merits. A medal which recites the heroic deed it commemorates is given to hero, widow, or next of kin. The field embraced by the fund is the United States, the Dominion of Canada, the Colony of Newfoundland, and the waters thereof. From the foundation of the fund to the beginning of 1914 about 750 medals had been awarded. In most cases these were accompanied by gifts of money. Of the medals 15 were gold, 274 silver, and 434 bronze. The commission has also contributed liberally in cases of disaster. These have included the

California earthquake, the Monongah mines disaster of Dec. 6, 1907, and several other mine disasters. The total funds distributed in pecuniary awards up to Jan. 31, 1913, was $1,045,503. Of this amount $671,041 included payments and pensions to heroes and their dependents, $174,462 went to funds for relief of sufferers from disasters, and $200,000 for special purposes. The latter includes appropriations to the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh. In addition to the Carnegie Hero Fund of America, Mr. Carnegie has established similar funds in Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Italy, and Denmark.

CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. An institution for technical education, founded at Pittsburgh, Pa., in 1900, by Andrew Carnegie. Until 1912 it was known as the Carnegie Technical Schools, but in that year was incorporated under its present title. Mr. Carnegie's original gift for the foundation of the institute was $1,000,000, but from time to time, as demands rose, he increased his benefactions until in 1913 they had reached a total of $4,000,000 for buildings and equipment, and $7,000,000 for endowment. The institute is located on a 32-acre site in Schenley Park, 3 miles from the business district of Pittsburgh. The site was a gift from the city. In 1914 eight buildings had been completed with a terraced campus in the centre. This represents only a portion of the ultimate building programme. The institution opened for actual work in October, 1905, with 765 students. The enrollment for 1912-13 was 2798 students from 39 States and 13 foreign countries. The officers of instruction and administration numbered 184. The institute consists of four separate schools, each with its own faculty, buildings, and student body. The School of Applied Science offers courses in chemical, civil, electrical, commercial, mechanical, metallurgical, mining, and sanitary engineering, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. There are in addition graduate courses. The enrollment in this school in 191213 was 752. The School of Applied Design offers courses in architecture, painting, decoration, illustration, and music. It is open to both men and women, and its courses lead to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The enrollment in 1912-13 was 310. The School for Applied Industries offers industrial courses in machine construction, building construction, general equipment and installation, and also a course for the training of industrial teachers leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in vocational education. Short courses of eight months are offered in machine shop, pattern making, mechanical drawing, electric wiring, plumbing, foundry, forging and bricklaying, for those who have had some experience in these trades. The enrollment in this school in 1912-13 was 1102. The Margaret Morrison Carnegie School for Women offers a regular day course embracing two years of general training with particular emphasis on home making, followed by two years of specialized training in household economics, secretarial work, costume economics, and home arts and crafts, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. There are also courses in the same subjects for the training of teachers. In this school the enrollment in 1912-13 was 574 students.

These four schools have also night courses in practically all of their subjects. The fees for

attendance at the institute are set at a nominal figure, as Mr. Carnegie's purpose in founding it was to place technical education of the most approved type within reach of students of moderate means. Tuition fees for day courses are $20 a year for residents of Pittsburgh and $30 for nonresidents. For the night courses the fees are $5 a year for residents and $7 for nonresidents. In connection with the institute there is operated a 750-acre engineering camp, called Camp Louise Carnegie. Here students in certain courses are stationed at different periods for their practical field work. director of the institute is Arthur Arton Hamerschlag, Sc.D., LL.D.

The

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. An institution founded in 1902 at Washington, D. C., by Andrew Carnegie, "to encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind." At the time of its founding Mr. Carnegie gave to the board of trustees of the institution $10,000,000. To this an addition of $2,000,000 was made by him in 1907, and a further addition of $10,000,000 in 1911, so that the endowment of the institution in 1913 was $22,000,000. It was originally organized under the laws of the District of Columbia, and incorporated as The Carnegie Institution, but was reincorporated by an Act of Congress, approved April 28, 1904, under its present title. Under the articles of incorporation the institution was placed under the control of a board of 24 trustees, all of whom had been members of the original corporation. The trustees meet annually in December to consider the affairs of the institution in general, the progress of work already undertaken, the initiation of new projects, and to make the necessary appropriations for the ensuing year. During intervals between the meetings of trustees the affairs of the institution are conducted by an executive committee, chosen by and from the board of trustees, and acting through the president of the institution as chief executive officer.

To carry out the objects of its establishment three principal agencies have been developed. The first of these involves the formation of departments of research within the institution itself to attack larger problems requiring the collaboration of several investigators, special equipment, and continuous effort. The second provides means whereby individuals may undertake and carry to completion investigations not less important, but requiring less collaboration and less special equipment. The third agency, a division devoted to editing and printing books, aims to provide adequate publication of the results of research coming from the first two agencies, and to a limited extent also for worthy works not likely to be published under other auspices. These publications in 1914 numbered about 250 volumes. Copies of these are distributed freely to a selected list of libraries, and other copies are offered for sale at approximately the cost of publication.

The departments of research in the institution, organized up to 1914, are as follows: Department of Botanical Research (work carried on largely at Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Ariz.); Department of Economics and Sociology; Department of Experimental Evolution (laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.); Department of Historical Research; Department of Marine Bi

ology (at Tortugas, Fla.); Department of Meridian Astrometry; the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory; Department of Terrestrial Magnetism and a Geophysical Laboratory (at Washington); and the Nutrition Laboratory (Boston). The president of the institution is Robert S. Woodward.

CARNEIA, kär-nē'à or -niȧ. See GREEK FESTIVALS.

CARNEIRO DE CAMPOS, kär-nāʼrð dă käm'posh, José JOAQUIM (1768-1836). A Brazilian politician, born at Bahía. He graduated at the University of Coimbra, Portugal, became a member of the Brazilian Constituent Assembly in 1823, and in the same year was appointed Minister of the Interior by the Emperor, Dom Pedro I. In 1826 he became Senator from the Province of Bahía and attained distinction as a debater on the important constitutional After the questions then under discussion. abdication of Dom Pedro I he was appointed one of the three members of the provisional regency.

CARNEIRO LEÃO, kär-nā'rò lâ-oux', HoNORIO HERMETO (1801-56). A Brazilian politician, born at Jacahy. He studied law at the University of Coimbra, attained distinction in his profession, was elected deputy in 1830, and in 1832-33 was Minister of Justice. From Jan. 20, 1843, to February, 1844, he was Prime Minister, and again held the same office from 1854 until his death. He became President of Rio de Janeiro in 1841 and of Pernambuco in 1849. For the greater part of his political career he was known as a leader of the so-called "New Conservative" party.

CARNE'LIAN, or CORNELIAN (Fr. cornaline, from Lat. cornu, horn. Carnelian is a form influenced by popular etymology with Lat. caro, flesh). A semitransparent variety of chalcedony, varying in color from a pale to a deep red. Inferior varieties are yellow and brown. The finest specimens are red and come mostly from Cambay and Surat in India. Red and yellow specimens of excellent quality have also been found at Tampa Bay, Fla., and near Cape Split, Nova Scotia. The carnelian from India is found in nodules of a blackish-olive color, which turn red only after exposure to the heat of the sun for two years, the color gradually becoming brighter and deeper. Artificial heat is sometimes substituted for that of the sun's rays, but with less satisfactory results, as the stones frequently crack and seldom acquire a brilliant lustre. The blood-red varieties were greatly valued by the ancients, who executed beautiful engravings in carnelian. Among the extant specimens of this kind may be mentioned the portrait of Sextus Pompeius in the Berlin collection, that of Helen in Vienna, and several in the British Museum. The carnelian is still used by lapidaries for seal rings.

CARNERI, kär-na'rê, BARTHOLOMÄUS VON (1821-1909). An Austrian politician and writer, born at Trient. In 1870 he was elected to the Austrian Chamber of Deputies, where, as a prominent Liberal, he retained a seat until 1890. His publications include, besides some political monographs, Gefühl, Bewusstsein, Wille (1876); Grundlegung der Ethik (1881); Der moderne Mensch (5th ed., 1901); a translation of the Divina Commedia (1901), and a volume of Gedichte (1850).

CAR/NIFEX FERRY. A ferry across the Gauley River, near the mouth of Meadow River,