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in Nicholas Co., W. Va. Near here, on Sept. 10, 1861, during the Civil War, an engagement occurred between a Federal force under General Rosecrans and a smaller Confederate force of 5000 under General Floyd. The former lost 17 killed and 141 wounded, while Floyd reported his casualties at only 20. During the night, however, Floyd retreated across the Gauley. Consult Johnson and Buel (editors), Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. i (New York, 1887); Official Records, vol. v.

CAR'NIN (Lat. caro, flesh), C,H,N,O,. An organic substance allied to xanthine and found in meat extract, from which it may be obtained in the form of small, irregular crystals, sparingly soluble in cold, but readily in hot water. To prepare carnin from meat extract, the latter is dissolved and the solution is precipitated with a moderate quantity of baryta water, filtered, and basic acetate of lead is added to the filtrate; the lead precipitate is carefully extracted with hot water, and the solution thus obtained is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen to precipitate the lead; on filtering and concentrating the solution, carnin crystallizes out after some time. By the action of bromine water or of nitric acid, carnin may be readily converted into hypoxanthine, or sarkin, another compound contained in flesh.

Silk,

tended by over 75,000 children, or 89 per cent of the total school population.

CAR'NIO'LA (Ger. Krain). An Austrian crownland, bounded by Carinthia on the north, Styria on the northeast, Croatia on the east, southeast, and south, and Istria and Görz on the west (Map: Austria, D 4). It covers an area of 3843 square miles. The surface of Carniola is mostly mountainous. The northern part is traversed by a portion of the Karawanken chain, while on the west it receives the Julian Alps, which form the chief mountain chain of Küstenland. Carniola belongs chiefly to the basin of the Save, which crosses its northern portion. In the south the main stream is the Gurk. There are not a few mountain caves and charming lakes. Although the proportion of productive land is very considerable (over 95 per cent), arable land is scarce (15 per cent) in Carniola on account of the numerous forests. The production of cereals is light. Vegetables constitute a very prominent element in the diet of the inhabitants. flax, and grapes are cultivated, and the exploitation of the forests is carried on extensively. The chief mineral is quicksilver, the mines of Idria being considered the most productive in Europe, with the exception of the Almaden mines in Spain. The other prominent minerals are iron and lignite. The chief manufacturing industries are the weaving of textiles and the making of leather goods. The trade is largely transit. Nearly 300 miles of railway lines, with Laibach, the capital, as the centre, facilitate the commerce of the crownland. The Diet of Carniola is composed of the Prince-Bishop of Laibach, 10 representatives of the landed aristocracy, 8 representatives of the towns and industrial centres, 2 representatives of the chamber of commerce of Laibach, and 16 representatives of the rural communities. In the Lower House of the monarchy Carniola is represented by 11 delegates, 2 from the landed aristocracy, 3 from the towns, 5 from the rural communities, and 1 elected by the people at large. For internal administration, the crownland is divided into 11 districts and the city of Laibach. There are about 380 elementary schools (283 Slav), at

Carniola had a population of 525,083 in 1910, against 508,150 in 1900, showing an increase of over 3 per cent for the decade. Nearly 94 per cent of the people are Slovenes, and the remainder consists of Germans, Serbo-Croatians, and Italians. Almost the entire population belongs to the Roman Catholic church. The capital, Laibach, had a population of 36,547 in 1910.

Carniola received its present name from the Slavonic Wends, who occupied the region after the fall of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne conquered it and gave it to the dukes of Friuli. From 972 it had margraves of its own, sometimes called dukes, who possessed, however, only a part of the country. On the extinction of the male line of the margraves, part of the territory passed to the dukes of Austria in the thirteenth century, and the remainder was acquired by them in the fourteenth. From 1809 to 1813 it formed part of the French Province of Illyria; in 1849 it became a crownland. See Dimitz, Geschichte Krains (4 vols., Laibach, 1874-76).

CARNIVAL (It. carnevale, or carnovale; probably from ML. carnelevarium, a release from the flesh. Incorrectly derived by popular etymology from Lat. carni vale, farewell to flesh, or It. carne vale, farewell, flesh). The days of revelry immediately before the beginning of Lent. The origin of this celebration is almost as obscure as the derivation of the name, for which several theories have been suggested, none of them entirely satisfactory. There is very little doubt that the custom is a survival of the old Roman festival of the Lupercalia (q.v.), which was held at the same season of the year, and that the Church, as in so many other instances (see BONFIRE), attempted to regulate and sanctify what it could not entirely suppress. The same spirit of compromise marked the attitude of the popes towards it throughout the Middle Ages. As secular rulers they were disinclined altogether to suppress an observance which promoted the material prosperity of the city; yet as pastors of souls they could not look with complacency upon the frequently unrestrained license attending its celebration. Several of the more spiritually minded popes made a practice of spending the season in strict retirement, to avoid witnessing the disorders which they could not altogether prevent: the time, which originally extended from the feast of the Epiphany (January 6) to Ash Wednesday, was restricted to eight and finally to three days; and a number of minute regulations have always reminded the populace of the existence of a superior authority. The celebration was usually suspended in the years of jubilee (q.v.), and the funds generally expended on the carnival diverted to the entertainment of needy pilgrims, the Jews being compelled to contribute to that purpose the tax in other years laid upon them for the purposes of the carnival.

In modern times Rome has continued the principal seat of these observances, although other Italian cities, notably Venice, have displayed great splendor, and the Parisians, never averse to an occasion for merrymaking, indulge in elaborate revels. A long-established custom in Paris has been to lead in the procession a fat ox (boeuf gras, whence Mardi Gras) followed in a triumphal car by a child called "the king of the butchers." Otherwise few of the traditional festivities are kept alive, except

the throwing of confetti or sweetmeats and flowers, the blowing of horns, the masked balls (see MASQUERADE), and the parades of allegorical chariots. In Italy, after the gayeties of the last day, Mardi Gras, the death of the carnival is symbolized by the burning of a huge effigy; and the crowds in the streets carry lighted tapers (moccoletti), each endeavoring to extinguish those of his neighbors and keep his own alight. In the United States the principal observance of Mardi Gras is that which has been carried out in New Orleans with great pomp and splendor since 1857. On this day the whole city is turned over to the rule of "King Rex, who passes through the streets escorted by his bodyguard, the mystic krewe of Comus," and various military and visiting organizations. In the evening occurs the great street pageant, in which are displayed elaborate tableaux, placed on moving forms and brilliantly illuminated. These represent noted scenes of history, poetry, or fiction, and are constructed at great expense and with artistic elegance. All the arrangements are under the control of societies composed of the best-known professional and business men of the city. Consult Rosières, Histoire de la société française au moyen âge (Paris, 1880), and Story, Roba di Roma (London, 1862). Byron's Beppo and the second part of Goethe's Italienische Reisen also contain vivid descriptions of the Italian carnival of a century ago. See BLUE MONDAY; COLLOP MONDAY; SHROVETIDE.

CARNIV'ORA (Lat. neut. pl., from caro, flesh+vorare, to devour). An order of mammais, more or less efficiently adapted for predacious life, and including most of the forms popularly known as beasts of prey. Not all animals carnivorous in diet are carnivora in structure, for the dasyure or Tasmanian devil is a marsupial, and the blood sucking Desmodus is a bat. Nor are all the members of the order Carnivora in diet purely carnivorous, for the polar bears eat grass greedily, the ratels are very partial to honey, and many forms eat fruits, berries, insects, mollusks, or crustaceans in a highly omnivorous manner.

The carnivora dwell in all parts of the world except New Zealand and Australia, where their work is done by flesh-eating marsupials. They vary in size from the ermine which one may hide in his pocket to bears that may weigh 2000 pounds; and are fitted for the chase of almost every variety of living creature, not even the oceanic birds (in their breeding places) being exempt from their ravages. They thus serve as a check upon the otherwise too rapid multiplication of herbivores, rodents, etc., which, relieved from them, would soon swarm excessively. Their relations with mankind are mainly those of enmity. He pursues some for sport, others for their fur, and others in order to get rid of neighbors dangerous to him or his domestic animals. The carnivora therefore disappear to a great extent in areas of civilization, the effect of which is felt in the increase of such pests as mice and gophers; but in some parts of the world wild beasts carry on even warfare, tigers and leopards alone killing many thousands of human beings and cattle annually. From this class, however, mankind has derived two of his most valued domestic pets-the dog and cat.

General Characters. The dentition of most carnivora is very characteristic. There are in

each jaw six pointed cutting teeth, two strong, sharp, recurved canines, and molar teeth often adapted for cutting. The skull is short and dense. The lower jaw moves up and down in a deep, transverse, semicylindrical groove, and there are deep hollows on the sides and prominent crests on the roof of the skull for the attachment of the powerful muscles which work the jaw. As one would expect in animals with vigorous habits of life, the convolutions of the brain and olfactory lobes are well developed. · The toes are clawed, with more or less pointed nails. In contrast to herbivorous animals, the stomach is simple, and the cæcum is either absent or small. Vagrant, predatory habits, a flesh diet, fierce disposition, and high intelligence are ordinal characteristics. While most of the families are more abundant in the tropics than elsewhere, some are more generally inhabitants of temperate regions, and a few are especially common in the Far North.

Classification. Two suborders are distinguished-Fissipedia, the typical terrestrial carnivora, and Pinnipedia, the aberrant, aquatic forms. The second suborder, with its numerous adaptive characters, has doubtless been derived from the first, and is divided into three families, with about 50 species: 1. Otariidæ, or eared seals, nearest to the typical carnivora, and characterized by the presence of external ears. The sea lions, sea bears, sea elephants, fur seals, etc., are well-known examples. 2. Trichechidæ (or Rosmarida), the walruses (q.v.), of which only two species, or perhaps one with two geographical subspecies, are known, characterized by the prolongation of the upper canine teeth into two powerful tusks. 3. Phocidæ, or earless seals, characterized by the absence of external ears and the lack of tusks; there are about 10 genera and some 20 species.

Cuvier proposed to divide the typical carnivores into Plantigrades, walking on the entire sole (e.g., bears), and Digitigrades, walking on finger tips (e.g., cats); but these functional differences are rendered useless by the multitude of transitional links connecting them, and it is more accurate and useful to divide the order into three sections, represented familiarly by bear, dog, and cat, and technically known as Arctoidea, Cynoidea, Eluroidea. The distinctions are based on certain features in the base of the skull, but are corroborated by other more general characteristics.

1. The Arctoidea, which are less specialized and nearest the aquatic suborder, are composed of six families, viz., the fur bearers (Mustelidae), the bears (Ursidae), the raccoons (Procyonidae), and three small related families.

2. The Cynoidea resembles the Arctoidea in most respects, and are composed of the single family Canide-dogs, foxes, etc.

3. Eluroidea are the most specialized of carnivores, represented by cats, civets, etc., of which there are six families. The whole order of Carnivora embraces about 300 living species.

Pedigree and History. The fossil history of carnivora is of great interest, for not only have some remarkable forms like the sabre-toothed tiger (Machærodus) been unearthed, but the various families are linked together, as the cats and civets, by Proviverra, and the ancestors of at least the cats and the dogs are found in primitive generalized carnivores, such as Miacis, Oxhyæna, and Arctocyon. The group affords beautiful illustrations of increasing and of di

vergent specialization, as illustrated in the passage from primitive forms to the lion on the one hand and to the seal on the other. As to the relations of the carnivora to other orders of mammals, speculation is rife, but firmly based conclusions are hard to find. Looking backward, some naturalists have discovered affinities with the marsupials; while others, looking forward, have, with more abundant evidence, regarded the primitive carnivores as ancestral to Insectivora, and through them to Cheiroptera. And now there seems to be some evidence of not very distant relationship between Carnivora and Primates.

Bibliography. Consult authorities referred to under MAMMALIA; BEAR; CAT; DOG; ETC.

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS. A peculiar group of plants, part of whose food consists of animals, especially insects, captured by various contrivances, hence called also "insectivorous plants," since the captured insects are used for food. Most of these plants live in undrained swamps where the soil is poor in nitrogen, and the capture of insects is one way of getting protein food without manufacturing it. At the same time the leaves of these plants are usually green, and therefore manufacture carbohydrate food. There are three conspicuous types of "insect-catching" plants. The pitcher plants (Sarracenia, Nepenthes, etc.) are so named be

cause their leaves form tubes or urns of various kinds which contain water, and to these "pitchers" insects are attracted and then drowned. In some cases nectar is secreted around the mouth of the pitcher which attracts insects. Inside the pitcher, just below the rim, is a glazed zone, and below this another zone with thickly set downward-pointing hairs, so that when a fly slips upon the glazed zone and plunges into the liquid at the bottom of the pitcher, the zone of downward-pointing hairs effectually prevents any escape. The sundews (Drosera) are among the most common of the insectivorous plants, the leaves forming small

A leaf of the Sundew (Drosera), showing the tentacles which capture insects; the tentacles at the right illustrate how they bend in towards an insect which has alighted on the leaf.

tured here after the fashion of an eel trap.

these glands excrete a clear sticky fluid which clings to them like dewdrops, and which, not being dried up by the sunlight, has suggested the name "sundew." If an insect alights on the

Pitcher-like leaves (ascidia) of the Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia). Insects are often present in the liquid within the

ascidia.

leaf, or even brushes past it, it is held fast by the sticky hairs, which begin to curve inward, and presently press the victim down upon the surface of the blade, where it is digested. The Venus-flytrap (Dionaea) is one of the most remarkable of insect-trapping plants, being found only in certain sandy swamps near Wilmington, N. C. The leaf blade is constructed so as to work like a steel trap, the two halves snapping together and the marginal bristles interlocking like the teeth of a trap. This trap is sprung by sensitive hairs, like feelers, that are developed

on the leaf surface. When one of these is touched by a small flying or hovering insect, the trap snaps shut, and the insect is caught. In all of these cases a digestive fluid is excreted and the food material utilized. The most noteworthy single book upon this subject is Darwin, Insectivorous Plants (London, 1875). See DIONEA; NEPENTHES.

CARNOCHAN, kär'no-kan, JANET (1839

).. A Canadian educator and writer. She was born in Stamford, Ontario, and was educated at Niagara, where for many years she was a teacher in the high school. After resigning that position she devoted herself mainly to historical investigations in connection with the town of Niagara (formerly Newark and the earliest seat of government in Ontario) and the Niagara peninsula. In the course of these investigations she made many valuable contributions to the press. Chosen president of the Niagara Historical Society, she collected valuable relics of various sorts relating to the early history of the town and peninsula, and especially to the War of 1812. She was also active in procuring the erection of stones to mark historic places in the peninsula, and was principally concerned in the establishment of the Niagara Memorial Hall in 1907. Besides prose writings she published several poems.

CARNOCHAN, kär'no-kan, JOHN MURRAY (1817-87). An American surgeon, born in Savannah, Ga. He was educated at Edinburgh University and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, and in 1847 began a. A bladder of the Bladderwort practice in New York. Dr. Carnochan rapidly (Utricularia). Insects are caprose to the first rank among practicing physicians and surgeons and acquired great celebrity for the boldness and success of his operations, such as the removal of the lower jaw; the cure of elephantiasis by ligature of the femoral artery; excision of the ulna while preserving to the arm most of its functions; amputating the thigh at the hip joint, and particularly for removing, in case of neuralgia, the entire trunk

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b. Hairs (supposedly with digestive functions) within the bladder of Utricularia.

rosettes upon the ground in swampy regions. The margin of the leaf is beset by prominent glandular hairs, and over the inner surface of the blade shorter hairs are scattered. All of

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