CAR'PENTAʼRIA, GULF OF. A broad and deep indentation of the north coast of Australia, with an average length and breadth of 350 miles, stretching from lat. 11° to 17° 30′ S. and from long. 136° to 142° E. (Map: Australia, F 4). It was named after Carpenter, a Dutchman, who discovered and partly explored it in 1627. The gulf contains many islands. The shores are generally low with extensive indentations on the west coast.

CAR/PENTER (OF. carpentier, ML. carpentarius, from Lat. carpentum, cart, from Ir. carbad, cairbh, chariot, carb, basket), NAVY. An officer of warrant rank in the United States and British navies who acts as assistant to the executive officer or first lieutenant (in very large ships) in keeping the hull, spars, boats, etc., of a man-of-war in good condition. In the days of wooden ships he was a skilled mechanic in wooden shipbuilding, but since the advent of iron and steel ships he has been required to have a thorough knowledge of metal working and a practical knowledge of shipbuilding in iron and steel, as well as of woodworking. The carpenter of a ship of the navy is assisted by several artisans, called collectively the carpenter's gang, which includes shipwrights, plumbers, blacksmiths, painters, and carpenter's mates. When a carpenter has served six years as such, he is commissioned as a chief carpenter, with the rank of ensign. His pay and status are the same as those of the boatswain.

CARPENTER, EDMUND JANES (1845- ). An American author, born at Attleboro, Mass. After graduating from Brown University in 1866 he engaged in business until 1878, when he entered journalism. In 1884-96 he was an editorial writer on the Boston Daily Advertiser. His works include: A Woman of Shawmut (1892); America in Hawaii (1898); The American Advance (1903); Long Ago in Greece (1906); Roger Williams (1909); The Pilgrims and their Monument (1911).

CARPENTER, EDWARD (1844- ). An English author, born at Brighton, England. He was educated at Brighton College and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he became fellow and lecturer. He also served as a curate, but in 1874 gave up his orders in the Church, left Cambridge, and lectured in the University Extension movement until 1881. In 1883 he became a street-corner agitator and lecturer in the Socialist movement. He visited Walt Whitman in the United States in 1884. His publications include: Towards Democracy (1883; 5th ed., 1913); England's Ideal (1887; 5th ed., 1906); Civilization: Its Cause and Cure (1889; 5th ed., 1897); From Adam's Peak to Elephanta (1892); Homogenic Love (1894); An Unknown People (1897); Angels' Wings (1898); Ioläus (1902); The Art of Creation (1904); The Village and the Landlord (1907); Sketches from Life in Town and Country (1908); The Intermediate Sex (2d ed., 1909); The Promised Land (1910); Love's Coming-of-Age (3d ed., 1911); The Drama of Love and Death (1912).

CARPENTER, FORD ASHMAN (1868- ). An American meteorologist, born in Chicago. He was an assistant observer in the United States Army Signal Corps in 1888-91, and an observer for the United States Weather Bureau from 1892 to 1906, when he became local fore

caster at San Diego, Cal. He participated in the Nordhoff exploring expedition to Lower California and Mexico in 1903. His works include: Wind Velocities and Measurements (1889); Studies in the Physiography of Lake Tahoe (1891); Sunshine and Cloudiness (1896); Climatology of San Diego (1910); Aviation and Wind Movement (1911); Velo Clouds (1911); Photographing “Red Snow" in Natural Colors (1911); Over the Yosemite Trails (1912); The Climate and Weather of San Diego, California (1913).

CARPENTER, FRANK GEORGE (1855- ). An American traveler and journalist, born in Mansfield, Ohio. He graduated from the University of Wooster in 1877, two years later beginning his newspaper work as legislative correspondent of the Cleveland Leader. In 1881 he began a series of travels which continued for nearly 30 years and took him to all parts of the world. During these journeys he sent articles to newspapers and magazines. He was made a member of many scientific and learned societies and received the degree of Litt.D. from Wooster University in 1911. His published writings include an important series of geographical readers; Our Colonies and Other Islands of the Sea (1904); Africa (1905); Carpenter's Readers of Commerce and Industry; South America— Social, Industrial, and Political (1900); How the World is Fed (1907); How the World is Clothed (1909); How the World is Housed (1911). He also contributed a great number of articles to American journals and magazines. CARPENTER, FRED WARNER (1873- ). An American diplomat, born at Sauk Center, Minn., and educated in the public schools of Lake County. He studied law at the University of Minnesota, and after being admitted to the bar in 1898 was for several years stenographer in a law firm. In 1901 he became private secretary to William H. Taft, who was at the time Governor of the Philippines, and he continued to serve in this capacity while Mr. Taft was Secretary of War and during part of his administration as President. In 1910 he was ap pointed Minister to Morocco, and later Minister to Siam. The latter position he held until 1913.

CARPENTER, JOSEPH ESTLIN (1844- ). An English Unitarian theologian, son of William Benjamin Carpenter. He was educated at University and Manchester New Colleges; was minister of the Oakfield Road Church, Clifton, in 1866-69, and of Mill Hill Chapel, Leeds, 186975; lectured in Manchester College, London and Oxford, until 1906; and then became principal of Manchester College, Oxford, one of the foremost independent theological seminaries in England. He translated Ewald's History of Israel (1867-74, with Russell Martineau) and Tiele's Outlines of the History of Religion (1877), and wrote: The First Three Gospels: Their Origin and Relations (1890); The Composition of the Hexateuch (1900); The Bible in the Nineteenth Century (1903); The Historical Jesus and the Theological Christ; and a manual on Comparative Religion (1913). With Rhys Davids he edited Digha Nikaya (1890; 1902) and the Sumangala Vilasini (1886).

CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840). An English Unitarian minister. He was born in Kidderminster, studied at the University of Glasgow, taught school from 1803 to 1805, and was employed in the Liverpool Athenæum. He then be

came pastor of a church in Exeter and in 1817 removed to Bristol. He taught at Exeter and had Harriet and James Martineau among his pupils in Bristol. He was much interested in the religious instruction of children and established several Sunday schools. He did much to broaden the spirit of English Unitarianism. He rejected the rite of baptism as a superstition and substituted a form of infant dedication. Among his works are: Unitarianism, the Doctrine of the Gospel (1809); Systematic Education (2 vols., 1815); Examination of the Charges Made against Unitarianism (1820), a reply to William Magee, Archbishop of Dublin; and Principles of Education (1820). Consult his Memoirs, ed. by his son, R. L. Carpenter (London, 1842).

CARPENTER, LOUIS GEORGE (1861

An American irrigation engineer, born in Orion, Mich. He graduated in 1879 at the Michigan Agricultural College, studied at Johns Hopkins University, and was assistant professor of mathematics and engineering at the former institution in 1881-88, when he was appointed professor of engineering and physics at the Colorado Agricultural College. He was special agent of the United States artesian-wells investigation in 1890; founded the American Society of Irrigation Engineers in 1891, and in 1899 was appointed director of the agricultural experiment station at the Colorado Agricultural College. The first systematic instruction in irrigation engineering given in any American college was organized by Professor Carpenter.

CARPENTER, MARY (1807-77). An English philanthropist, the eldest child of the Rev. Dr. Lant Carpenter (q.v.). She took an active part in the movement in behalf of orphaned or neglected children, and besides advocating their cause in her writings, founded several reformatories for girls, one of which, the Red Lodge Reformatory, she superintended. In the prosecution of her philanthropic labors she visited India three times, and in 1871 organized the National Indian Association, whose journal she edited. Among her intimate friends were Harriet Martineau and Frances Power Cobbe, the latter being for some time associated with her at Red Lodge. She published: Reformatory Schools (1881); Juvenile Delinquents (1853); Our Convicts (2 vols., 1864), a book which drew public attention to the treatment of young criminals; and Six Months in India (2 vols., 1868). Consult J. E. Carpenter, Life and Work of Mary Carpenter (London, 1879).

CARPENTER, MATTHEW HALE (1824-81). An American lawyer and politician, born in Moretown, Vt. He spent two years in the United States Military Academy, studied law with Rufus Choate, and in 1848 settled in Wisconsin. He was remarkably successful as a lawyer, and was especially notable for his defense of W. W. Belknap, Secretary of War, when the latter was impeached by the House of Representatives, and for his argument in favor of Samuel J. Tilden before the Electoral Commission (q.v.). Carpenter was twice elected United States Senator from Wisconsin, serving from 1869 to 1875 and again from 1879 until his death. Consult F. A. Flower, Life of Matthew Hale Carpenter (Madison, Wis., 1883).

CARPENTER, ROLLA CLINTON (1852-1919). An American engineer. He was born at Orion, Mich., and graduated from the University of Michigan in 1875. From 1875 to 1890 he was

CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (181385). An English physiologist, born at Exeter, a son of Lant Carpenter. Soon after his graduation in Edinburgh, in 1839, he published his Principles of General and Comparative Physiology, afterward divided into The Principles of Comparative Physiology and The Principles of General Physiology. These works, together with The Principles of Human Physiology (1846) and The Principles of Mental Physiology (1874), form a perfect cyclopædia of the biological science of this period. Carpenter likewise published: A Manual of Physiology; The Microscope: Its Revelations and its Uses (6th ed., 1881); a prize essay upon The Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors (1851). His most important original researches are: On the Structure of Shells; On the Development of Purpura Lapillus; On the Structure, Functions, and General History of the Foraminifera. His published works also include: Zoology and the Instincts of Animals (1857); Physiology of Temperance (1870); Mesmerism and Spiritualism (1877); Nature and Man (1888). He edited the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review and was one of the editors of the Natural History Review. He took a chief part in the government expedition sent out in 1868-70 for deepsea exploration in the northern Atlantic, and contributed largely to the discussion of the vexed question of ocean circulation. He advocated the doctrine of a vertical circulation, sustained by opposition of temperature only, independent of and distinct from the horizontal currents produced by winds. This doctrine was first advanced by Professor Lenz, of St. Petersburg, in 1845; but Dr. Carpenter was ignorant of this when the deep-sea observations, begun in 1868, led him to an identical theory.

CARPENTER, SIR WILLIAM BOYD (18411918). An English clergyman of the Established church, Bishop of Ripon. He was born in Liverpool, was educated at the Royal Institution, Liverpool, and St. Catharine's College, Cambridge, and was appointed Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1878. In 1887 he was appointed Bampton lecturer at Oxford, and in 1895 pastoral lecturer on theology at Cambridge. He held several curacies, was vicar of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate, from 1879 to 1884, canon of Windsor in 1882-84, and after 1884 Bishop of Ripon. In 1904 and 1913 he visited the United States and delivered the Noble lectures at Harvard. He was chaplain in ordinary to Queen Victoria, Edward VII, and George V. His publications include: a Commentary on Revelation (1879); Permanent Elements of Religion

(Bampton lectures, 1889); Lectures on Preaching (1895); a Popular History of the Church of England (1900); Witness to the Influence of Christ (1905); Some Pages of my Life (1911); Life's Tangled Thread (1912); The Apology of Experience (1913).

CARPENTER, WILLIAM HENRY (1853). An American philologist, born at Utica, N. Y. He was educated at Cornell and Johns Hopkins, Leipzig and Freiburg universities. In 1883 he was instructor in rhetoric and lecturer on northern European literature at Cornell. In the same year he was called to Columbia and there he rose to be adjunct professor of Germanic languages and literature in 1890, professor in 1895, and Villard professor of Germanic philology in 1902, and later also provost of Columbia University. He was chosen vice president of the Germanistic Society of America. His publications include: Grundriss der neuisländischen Grammatik (1881); Nikolasdrapa Halls Prest, An Icelandic Poem from A.D. 1400 (1881); Some Conditions of American Education (1911). Professor Carpenter was also a contributor to the NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPÆDIA and other reference works.

CARPENTER BEE. A solitary bee that excavates its nest in solid wood, in a dead twig, or in the pith hollow of various plants; it represents in the United States various species of Ceratinida and Xylocopidæ. The former are smooth, active, flylike little bees, usually metallic blue or green, of which the Ceratina dupla, one-quarter inch long, is a familiar example. It bores tunnels into the stems of pithy plants, and especially of brambles. This tunnel is divided into small compartments by partitions made of agglutinated pith. An egg, together with some pollen, is inclosed in each compartment until the entire burrow is filled save a small space at the entrance just large enough to contain the parent female, where she awaits the hatching of her children. The hatching occurs in each compartment in succession, beginning with the bottom, each bee tearing out the partition of its own cell and awaiting the birth of the bee above it. When all are ready, the female sallies forth with her brood and soon after arranges for a second. The large carpenter bees of the family Xylocopidæ are represented all over the northern United States by Xylocopa virginica, which is as large and noisy as a bumblebee, but differently colored, and on its hind legs bearing tufts of hair instead of pollen baskets. This bee bores its tunnels, which are nearly half an inch in calibre, in solid wood, such as that of dead timber, dry stumps, fence posts, and unpainted woodwork about houses and outbuildings; it is therefore easy to observe the method in detail. A short perpendicular entrance made across the grain leads into the centre of a burrow following the grain, which may be 18 inches long, requiring a month's labor. The raspings formed in excavation are agglutinated, probably by salivary excretions, into partitions dividing the burrow into cells about two-thirds of an inch long, in which the eggs are placed together with balls of pollen and nectar. Several bees may use the same entrance to the tunnel and several chambers may run parallel, but usually they run in opposite directions from the common door. These bees will often utilize an old burrow to save the great labor of digging, and would do so more regularly, perhaps, did they not often find them already preempted by other kinds

of insects. See BEE, and see Plate of WILD BEES.

CARPEN TORAC'TE. See CARPENTRAS. CARPENTRAS, kår'päN'trås' (ancient Carpentoracte, of Celtic origin). A town in the Department of Vaucluse, France, on the left bank of the Auzon, at the foot of Mount Venteux, 16 miles by rail northeast of Avignon (Map: France, S., K 4). It contains a number of Roman remains, including a small triumphal arch. It has also an old cathedral, an episcopal palace (now used as a palais de justice), a museum containing a collection of Phoenician bas-reliefs, old fortifications, notable among which is the Port d'Orange, a theatre, and a library of 50,000 volumes. The chief products are leather, wax, chemicals, and fruit. Carpentras also has a considerable trade for its manufactures of silk, dyed fabrics, and hats. Pop. (commune), 1896, 8391; 1901, 10,443; 1911, 11,390.

CARPENTRY. The putting together the parts of a wooden building, or the wooden parts and members of a composite building. (See BUILDING.) It is distinguished from cabinetwork (q.v.) and joinery (q.v.) in that it deals with the larger and heavier sorts of woodwork, while these deal with the finer sorts of woodwork and the lighter forms of construction. The framework of a building and its covering and flooring, the casings of doors and windows, often the doors and windows themselves, are framed and set by the carpenter. In America he also puts in place much of the finer finish and cabinetwork," even when made by others-trim, wainscot, platforms, molds, etc. The carpenter

is a skilled craftsman, as his work requires fine tools, careful measurement, and accurate adjustment. For fastening his work he uses chiefly nails and screws; the old-time wooden trenail or pin in heavy structural work has been generally replaced by spikes and bolts. A large part of the woodwork of modern buildings is now made in mills, especially doors, windows with their boxing, blinds and shutters, and moldings of all profiles; these the carpenter or contractor orders as needed, and they are set in place by the carpenter. Stairs and balustrades are also frequently made, and sometimes set up, by special craftsmen, called stair builders.

The medieval half-timber (q.v.) construction is rarely employed in modern work, at least in America. Where wood abounds as the cheapest material for housebuilding, the carpenter constructs a framework of vertical timbers (the heavier ones called posts, the lighter ones studs) for the walls, resting upon heavy horizontal sleepers (sills) laid on the foundation walls or "underpinning," and of horizontal beams for the floors (the heavier ones called girders, the lighter ones joists), with inclined beams (rafters) for the roof. This framework is covered with boards (sheathing), over which is nailed the outer covering of overlapping boards (siding, clapboards) or shingles, sometimes with an intervening layer of tarred paper, "roofing felt," or like material. The outside trim of doors, windows, cornices, etc., is generally the last to be set up on the exterior. Underflooring of boards is nailed to the joists; "grounds" and laths to the inner faces of the studs, to receive the plastering, doors and windows are hung, the finished stairs set up, the finished flooring of hard wood or of softer wood in narrow strips is nailed to the underflooring, and after the plastering is finished the inside "standing finish" of trim, wain

scot, baseboards, mantelpieces, etc., is put in place. Figures 1 and 2 show the commonest type of house framing used in the United States,

Rafter

Plate

Post

merely "toenailed" to them. In what is called the "full frame" heavy posts are set up at intervals and strongly braced to the sills and plates, and the intervening studs are interrupted at each story by heavy girders from post to post. In Europe heavier timbers are used than is customary in America. Joists in the United States are deep and thin (2 X 8, 3 X 10, 3 x 12 inches, etc.), spaced 12 or 16 inches apart and stiffened by cross bridging at every 6 feet; in Europe heavier joists, often square timbers, are sometimes used without bridging.

The various forms of joints for connecting timbers end to end (splicing, halving, scarfing, etc.) and for framing timbers to each other at right angles (mortise and tenon, notching, halving, mitre and tongue, etc.) are too numerous and complex to be described in a short article; a few of them are shown in Figs. 3 and 4; while Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate typical joints

must be shaped to the curved lines of the vessel, partly by means of "steaming and bending," partly by hewing with the adze and axe. The planking with which the frame of keel, keelson, ribs, knees, and deck beams is covered is proportionately heavier than in house carpentry, and must be bent, adzed, and planed to the proper curved surface, after the edges have been hewn to the proper shape and bevel to make close joints. The development of iron and steel shipbuilding has resulted in confining ship carpentry chiefly to the construction of the smaller types of vessel, especially yachts, coasting schooners (some of these, however, of great size), and barges, canal boats, and scows. SHIPBUILDING.

See

Bibliography. Consult bibliography of BUILDING; also Fletcher and Fletcher, Carpentry and Joinery for Architects, etc. (London, 1898); Hatfield, The American House Carpenter (New York, 1880); Hodgson, Modern Carpentry and Joinery (New York, 1906); Jacoby, Structural Details, or Elements of Design in Heavy Framing (New York, 1909); Riley, Manual of Carpentry and Joinery (New York, 1906). Also article "Charpente" in Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française (Paris, 1876). CARPETBAGGERS. A term of eontempt applied by the people of the Southern States to those who came from other parts of the Union to live in the South, or to transact business there, after the close of the Civil War; but applied particularly to those Northern political adventurers who, by the aid of the negro vote, gained control of the State governments in the South; the term also includes those who came to make money by irregular and sometimes criminal means out of the corrupt governments (called carpetbag governments) of the Reconstruction period. (See RECONSTRUCTION.) The term was originally used to designate the "wildcat" bankers of the West, who defrauded the people and could never be found when wanted; and, by extension of meaning, is sometimes applied to those who drift about from place to place and have no fixed residence.

CARPET BEETLE or BUG, or BUFFALO MOTH. An imported dermestid (Anthrenus scrophularia), whose destructive larvæ, first noticed

wing covers; it is thus frequently confused with the much larger and harmless ladybird beetle, that also at times seeks refuge in houses during winter. It feeds on the pollen of flowers. The larvæ are short, fat, hairy grubs, and may be found under the edges of carpets, along seams, in floor cracks, and particularly beneath heavy furniture. They feed on the carpet materials, on the lint that collects under matting and in cracks, and on woolen clothing and furs. Pyrethrum powder sprinkled in places frequented by them is helpful. The carpets of infested houses should not be tacked down, but placed so that they may be examined frequently. Pieces of woolen cloth on closet floors act as traps to attract and collect the larvæ. Infested clothing may be cleared by shutting it up in tight boxes and subjecting it to the fumes of carbon bisulphide. Clothing packed away in tight receptacles with a plentiful supply of naphtha balls is rarely disturbed by the beetles. Two other species of this same genus (Anthrenus varius and Anthrenus museorum) are great pests of insect, bird, and other museum collections. Consult Howard and Marlatt, Household Insects (Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1896). See DERMESTID BEETLES.

CARPET MOTH, SNAKE, ETC. The word "carpet" is often adjectivally applied to animals in the sense of "variegated." Thus a "carpet moth" is one of the geometrids having varied and lively ornamentation; but a carpet-eating moth, as Tinea tapetzella (see CLOTHES MOTH), may also be meant. In Australia a scylloid shark (Crossorhinus barbatus) is called "carpet shark," and the big, harmless pythonoid snake (Morelia variegata), so common in the same country, is everywhere known as "carpet snake." An American instance is found in California, where the beautifully marked little edible clam (Tapes staminea) of the Pacific coast is known as the "carpet shell."

CARPETS AND RUGS. In the United States by carpets is usually meant carpeting 27 inches (ingrains 36 inches) wide, cut into lengths, sewed together, and tacked down, completely covering the floor of a room, except the space occupied by hot-air registers; by rugs is meant one-piece or seamless floor coverings, usually rectangular but sometimes round or oval, that leave part of the floor uncovered (at least a foot around the outside), and not being tacked down can be easily removed for cleaning. Imitations of one-piece rugs are also made out of strips of carpeting sewed together, usually so woven that these seamed rugs have an outside border like the seamless ones. In England large rugs are called "carpets," while in the United States they are often spoken of as "of carpet size."

The word "carpet" is derived from ML. carpita, meaning a "villose or thickish cloth," in other words, a heavy-pile fabric. In Chambers' Cyclopædia (1727-51) "carpet" is defined as "a sort of covering... to be spread on a table, trunk, an estrade, or even a passage or floor," "estrade" being an old word for "dais" or "raised platform"; so that we should not be surprised at finding that "on the carpet," like the French "sur le tapis," means not "on the floor," but "on the table"; and at the same time that "knight of the carpet" is so called because dubbed, not in the field, but on the "carpet or cloth usually spread," in the sixteenth century and earlier, before the throne of the sovereign or lord, and that once when servants were summoned before