cuted for Catharine II of Russia, illustrating her victories over the Turks.

He

His brother, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1728 or 3095), was born in Venice and studied in Dresden under Silvester and Dietrich, in Venice under Piazzetta, and in Rome under Mengs. gained the reputation of being a very correct draftsman and numbered among his pupils Angelica Kauffmann and Winckelmann. The latter commissioned him to make the drawings for his Monumenti antichi. He was appointed professor at the Dresden Academy in 1764 and director in 1776.

CASANOVA, kä'sȧ-no'vå, GIOVANNI GIACOMO, DE SEINGALT, de sån'gål′ (1725-1803). An Italian poet and adventurer, author of celebrated Memoirs. The story of his life is told with essential accuracy in his Memoirs. He was born in Venice in a family of actors. Educated in Padua for the priesthood, he early showed remarkable brilliance of intellect and charm of personality. At bottom a skeptic and a sensualist, with a full realization of his own instincts and capabilities and a wonderful insight into human nature, he set about making his way in the world with a curious blend of rectitude and unscrupulousness in his ethical code that makes of him one of the most interesting examples of eighteenth-century psychology. He began his work as a preacher in Venice when a mere boy. Various irregularities made it desirable for him to seek a post elsewhere, and he entered the service of Bishop Bernardis at Martorano, where he remained three days. Returning by way of Naples to Rome, he rapidly rose in favor with the Pope, as a ward of Cardinal Acquaviva. Here too he ultimately became embroiled, and after an adventurous journey to Venice he renounced the priesthood and entered the Venetian army at Corfu. Again in Venice on the recall of the troops, Casanova found himself in the direst poverty and accepted a position as a violin player in a cabaret. A fortunate accident enabled him to render a great personal service to a noble of the Bragadin family, who ultimately adopted him and assured him a certain income. However, new intrigues again forced Casanova to leave Venice, and not till late in life (1782) did he again have settled prospects before him. His wanderings led him to every capital of Europe, even as far as Constantinople. Living by gambling, by swindling and intrigue, by patronage won with his literary ability, his social grace and wit, his knowledge of feminine nature, he came to know intimately most of the important people of Europe, including Voltaire, Haller, Cardinal Bernis, Madame de Pompadour, etc. He acted as an agent for Louis XV and as a spy for the Venetian Republic. His life shows the most astonishing variations of fortune, alternations between wealth and distress, popularity and hatred. The fêted guest of Empress Catharine becomes the miserable convict of the Venetian Piombi, whence he made a marvelous escape, the relation of which became one of his social assets. The last years of his life were spent in peace at Dux in Bohemia, where he acted as librarian for the Duke of Waldstein.

Casanova has been regarded as one of the monstrous figures of literature for the gleeful frankness with which he portrays his own career in its most intimately immoral aspects. Recent criticism has treated him more kindly. His Memoirs have won recognition for their enorVOL. IV.-40

mous historical value as a picture of private life in the eighteenth century, and he is credited with no mean power as a literary artist. The Memoirs were written in French. The principal editions are those of Rosez (Brussels, 1860–63) and Garnier (Paris, 1879-80). But neither of these reproduces the original text, owned in manuscript by Brockhaus, Leipzig, who now has a complete critical edition in preparation. The marvelous character of the episodes of the Memoirs has brought their truthfulness often into question; but their general reliability has been demonstrated by a long list of studies, of which the most startling are Lettere di donne a G. Casanova, ed. by Ă. Ravà (Milan, 1912), and G. Casanovas Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1913), ed. by Ravà and Gugitz. See also Ravà, Contributo alla bibliografia di G. Casanova (Turin, 190910), and Tage Bull-Ravà (Vienna, 1913); A. Symonds, "Casanova at Dux," in North American Review (1902); Maynial, Casanova et son temps (Paris, 1911); Molmenti, Cartezzi casanoviani (Florence, 1911). The latest edition of the story of the escape from the Piombi is that of S. di Giacomo (Naples, 1911). Eng. trans. of Memoirs by Villars (London, 1892). CAS'AREEP, or CASSAREEP (South American word). A sauce or condiment made from the juice of the bitter cassava, or manioc root. It is in the highest esteem in Guiana, where it is employed to flavor almost every dish, and it is the basis of the favorite West Indian dish called pepper pot. It is a powerful antiseptic, and meat can by means of it be kept for a long time quite fresh, even in a tropical climate. It is made by evaporating and concentrating the juice, which is also mixed with various aromatics. The poisonous principle of the juice is dissipated in the evaporation, so that, although the juice in a fresh state is readily fatal to life, casareep is perfectly safe and wholesome. Casareep is imported into Holland and Britain and remains unimpaired in quality for several years.

CASAREGIS, kä’så-rā'jês, GIUSEPPE LORENZO MARIE (1670-1737). An Italian jurist, born in Genoa. He studied law at Pisa and was an auditor of the Rota (q.v.) at Siena and Florence. He was an authority in commercial law and one of the first important writers on that subject. His principal work is Discursus legales de commercio (2 vols., 1707; vol. iii, 1729).

CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE LAS. See LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE.

CASAS, EMMANUEL. See LAS CASAS, MARQUIS De.

CASAS GRANDES, kä'sȧs grän'das (Sp., great houses). A village in Chihuahua, Mexico, 150 miles northwest of the city of Chihuahua, celebrated for the ruins of early Mexican buildings (Map: Mexico, E 2). In the vicinity are artificial mounds from which have been excavated stone axes and various other prehistoric utensils. Similar ruins are found near the Gila, the Salinas, and the Colorado rivers. They are supposed by Bancroft to be the work of the same people, the Moquis. Consult H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. See CASA GRANDE.

CASATI, kå-sä'tê, GAETANO (1838-1902). An African explorer, born at Lesmo in upper Italy. After studying at the Academy in Pavia he entered the Italian army in 1859 and served there till 1879. On December 24 of that year he sailed for Africa under commission from the

In

Società d'Esplorazione Commerciale d'Africa. He followed the course of the Welle River and explored the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. 1882 he was held prisoner for some time by a native chief; in 1883 he joined Emin Pasha and was shut in with him by the Mahdi insurrection. After their release he became "resident" for Emin Pasha in the Kingdom of Kabba Rega. Although that monarch was at first friendly, he subsequently seized Casati and condemned him to death; but he escaped to Lake Albert Nyanza, where Emin Pasha rescued him in 1888. In December, 1889, Casati reached the coast with Emin and Stanley. Besides reports, he published Dieci anni in Equatoria (2 vols., 1891; English, Ten Years in Equatoria, 1891), especially valuable for its account of the Niam-Niam, whom he visited in 1883.

CASAUBON, Fr. pron. kå'zo'bôN', ISAAC (1559-1614). A distinguished French classicist and theologian. He, Joseph Scaliger (q.v.), and Justus Lipsius (q.v.) formed the famous triumvirate of sixteenth-century classical scholars. He was born in Geneva. In 1582 he was appointed professor of Greek in his native town; in 1596 he was called to a similar position in Montpellier. In 1599 he was summoned to Paris by Henry IV. The influence of the Catholic opponents of Casaubon was strong enough, however, to prevent his receiving a professorship; instead he was appointed royal librarian. After the murder of the King he felt his position insecure and in 1610 crossed to England, where James I received him with favor, appointing him prebendary of Canterbury and Westminster. Casaubon was sharply attacked by his opponents because of the favor the English King showed him, and he was charged with having bartered his opinions for position. He died in Westminster, and was buried in the great Abbey, He possessed great industry, excellent critical and grammatical sense, and skill in illustration and exposition. He was the first to treat in systematic manner an important field of literary history. This he did in his masterly work, De Satirica Græca Poesi et Romanorum Satira (1605; last ed. by Rambach, Halle, 1774). Most of his labor was expended on editions and commentaries. The most important of these were on Strabo (1587); Suetonius (1595); Persius (1605; 4th ed., 1833, called by Scaliger "a divine book"); Polybius (1609); Polyænus, the editio princeps (1589), and especially Athenæus (1598); on this last-named commentary, his greatest work, he spent 10 years. He edited also Apuleius; Aristotle; Aristophanes; the Historiæ Augustæ Scriptores; Pliny the Younger, etc., and made important contributions to the criticism and interpretation of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Diogenes Laërtius; Theocritus, etc. His theological interest gave rise to the works De Libertate Ecclesiastica (1607) and Exercitationes Contra Baronium (1614), in which he attacked the Annales Ecclesiastici of Cardinal Baronius (q.v.). These works appeal only to the scholar, but his characteristic diary, Ephemerides, may be relished by the general reader. It was edited by Russell (Oxford, 1850). Casaubon's Letters were published in Rotterdam, 1709. Consult Pattison, Isaac Casaubon, 2d ed. by Nettleship (Oxford, 1892), and Nazelle, Isaac Casaubon, sa vie et son temps (Paris, 1897).

The scholar lived on in his son, MERIC CASAUBON (1599-1671), born in Geneva and educated at Sedan and Oxford, who edited the works of

Marcus Aurelius, Terence, Epictetus, etc. Made successively prebendary of Canterbury, vicar of two charges, a rector, he suffered for devotion to Charles I. At the Restoration, however, he was again in favor. He wrote De Enthusiasmo; but perhaps his greatest work was the pious preservation of his father's manuscripts. He died at Oxford, where he had taught theology and, at the instance of Charles I, had received the degree of Doctor of Divinity.

CASAULT, kȧ'zo', SIR LOUIS NAPOLEON (1822-1908). A Canadian jurist, born at St. Thomas. He was admitted to the bar in 1847 and from 1854 to 1858 was a member, for Montmagny, of the Canadian Legislative Assembly. From 1867 to 1870 he represented Bellechasse in the Canadian House of Commons. He was professor of commercial and maritime law in Laval University from 1858 to 1891, puisne judge of the Superior Court of Quebec in 187094, and in 1894-1904 Chief Justice. He was one of the three commissioners appointed to adjust accounts between Ontario and Quebec and between those provinces and the Dominion. CASBIN, kȧz-ben'. See KASBIN.

CAS'CA, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS. One of the assassins of Julius Cæsar, who, according to Plutarch, struck the first blow. This was done across the back of Cæsar's neck with a short sword, but the wound was not deadly.

CASCADE'. See WATERFALL.

CASCADE RANGE. A range of mountains in western United States and Canada, forming a northward continuation of the Sierra Nevada Range (Map: United States, A 2). It begins in northern California near the Oregon boundary and extends across the latter State and Washington into British Columbia, where the line of elevations is continued by many small groups which are deeply intersected and eroded by river and lake systems. Its direction in the United States is nearly north and south, parallel to the Pacific coast; in Oregon the main axis of elevation lies about 100 miles from the coast, while in Washington the distance increases to 150 miles. The limits of the Cascade Range in British Columbia are not clearly defined. The name, however, is commonly assigned to the entire plateau region stretching across the province from southeast to northwest, which is limited on the east by the lofty ranges of the Rocky Mountains and on the west by the Island Range. southern section of the range is crossed by the Columbia River and by the Klamath River, both of which have cut deep gorges. In British Columbia the Fraser River occupies an extensive cañon, where it passes across the range to discharge into the Strait of Georgia.

The

The Cascade Range in its southern section is marked by extreme ruggedness of outline and by some of the loftiest summits in the United States. In the Shasta group of California, which defines its limit to the south, are Mount Shasta, 14,380 feet, and several other peaks over 10,000 feet in height. In Oregon it includes Mount Hood, 11,225 feet; Mount Jefferson, 10,200 feet; and Mount Pitt, 9760 feet; while in Washington is the magnificent cone of Mount Tacoma (Rainier), 14,408 feet, with many peaks of lesser altitude, including Mount Baker, 10,827 feet; Mount St. Helens, 10,000 feet; and Mount Adams, 12,307 feet. The British Columbian section contains no notable elevations, its character being rather that of a plateau dissected by numerous rivers, with a few prominences rising

above the surface to altitudes of 6000 or 7000 feet. Some summits of the Cascade Range are recently extinct volcanoes and carry heavy snow fields and glaciers. Igneous and volcanic rocks with Paleozoic strata constitute the central mass, while later sediments form the flanks. Its slopes, in part forested with firs, pine, and hard wood, are drained by the Columbia, Klamath, and Fraser rivers and by a large number of smaller streams, all of which discharge finally into the Pacific Ocean. See topography of OREGON, WASHINGTON, and BRITISH COLUMBIA.

kǎr'å

CASCARA SEGRADA, kǎs-kā'rȧ or kǎs(properly käs'kȧ-rå) så-grä'då (Sp., sacred bark), CHITTEM BARK, or SACRED BARK. The bark of Rhamnus purshiana, the Californian buckthorn, a tree of the natural order Rhamnaceæ. The bark contains a crystallizable substance (cascarin), resins, a volatile oil, and malic, tannic, and oxalic acids. A fluid extract of the bark, as well as cascarin, is used for the relief of chronic constipation and sometimes in gout. After prolonged use of it constipation is cured in many cases, as its action is to increase the peristaltic action of the muscular fibres of the intestine. It is generally combined with other laxatives, and is an ingredient of many proprietary purgative medicines. See BARK; BUCK

THORN.

CAS'CARIL'LA (Sp., little bark, dim. of cascara, bark, husk, from cascar, to fall, from Lat. cassare, quassare, to shake, from quatire, to shake; associated by popular etymology with Lat. cadere, to fall). A name given in South America to many different kinds of bitter medicinal barks which form articles of commerce. Peruvian bark itself bears no other name in the districts which produce it. The name "cascarilla" is often used in medicine to denote the bark of Croton eluteria. This plant is a small shrub found on the low hills of the Bahama Islands. The bark contains an essential oil, cascarillin, and a resin, and is a tonic, invigorating digestion and promoting the functions of the stomach. In large doses it is very nauseating.

In medicine, cascarilla is used in the form of an infusion or a tincture, in cases of fermentative dyspepsia, chronic bronchitis, and certain fevers. It is one of the aromatic bitters and stimulates the appetite and the digestive powers, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and is a mild astringent.

CASCINE, kȧ-she'nâ, LE. A park about two miles long, in Florence, bordering the Arno. It is laid out in fine walks and drives and is the favorite afternoon resort of Florentine society.

CAS'CO BAY. A bay on the southwest coast of Maine, about 20 miles in width at its mouth, from Bald Head on the east to Cape Elizabeth on the west, and extending about 12 miles inland (Map: Maine, C 8). The bay contains hundreds of small islands, most of which are occupied as summer resorts, and affords an excellent harbor. Portland (q.v.) is located on the west side of Casco Bay.

CASE (Fr. casse, caisse, Catalan capsa, Portug. caixa, from Lat. capsa, box, from capere, to take). A receptacle for type used in printing, which is divided into compartments or "boxes,' each of which contains type of one character or letter. A pair of cases consists of an upper and a lower case: the upper one contains the capitals, small capitals, and some other letters that are only occasionally required, the lower one

such as to afford the greatest facility in composing. The letter e, which is most used in the English language, has a box much larger than any of the other compartments and is placed directly in front of the compositor. In the upper case the boxes are of uniform size, and the letters are placed in alphabetical order, the comparatively rare occurrence of capitals rendering it immaterial which letter is nearest the compositor's hand.

CASE. In law, primarily a cause, that is, an action or suit taken as a whole. The word is used in this general sense in the United States Constitution, which extends the judicial power of the United States to "cases in law and equity, cases affecting ambassadors, etc." In a more limited sense, a case is one side of a suit or action, the body of evidence and law presented by one of the parties. The word is also used to denote a decided cause of action already recorded and cited in argument; thus the phrase case law is used to designate the species of legal argument founded on the examination and citation of decided cases; hence also the phrase leading cases, meaning cases in which the decisions have a wide application and set forth general principles which may govern many subsequent decisions. In the United States the term case is often used in brief for case on appeal, meaning the statement laid before a court of appeal by an appellant, presenting the record and the entire evidence of the original trial, or a résumé of it. This allows the appellate court to review the findings of the jury as well as the law points involved, and in this the case differs from the bill of exceptions, which presents only the matters of law to the court of appeal. Case agreed on, or case stated, is a statement in which parties to a suit unite in laying before the court the facts of the case upon which they agree for a decision on the points of law involved. Case reserved is a statement drawn by counsel and certified to by the judge, to be used as a basis for argument on law points before a full bench of the court.

Action on the Case. A very important form of action, sometimes called case, in brief for action on the case, or, still more fully, action of trespass on the case. This action did not exist at early common law, but was introduced by the Statute of Westminster II, in the reign