between China and Japan. In 1897 he was made Minister at Washington, becoming later the first Russian Ambassador to the United States. In face of the general anti-Russian sentiment in this country aroused by the Jewish massacres at Kishinev in 1903 and the events of the war with Japan, he conducted himself with great adroitness. In 1905 he was transferred to Madrid and was Russia's representative at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.

CASSINI, kȧ'sê'ne', CÉSAR FRANÇOIS, DE THURY (1714-84). A French astronomer, son of Jacques Cassini. He succeeded his father as director of the Paris Observatory. In 1744 he began the great topographical map of France, which was later completed by his son. Among his published works on geodesy may be mentioned Description géométrique de la terre (1775) and Description géométrique de la France (1784).

CASSINI, kả-sẽ nề, GIOVANNI DOMENICO (1625-1712). An Italian-French astronomer, born at Perinaldo, near Nice. He was professor of astronomy at Bologna, and first of the family which for four generations filled the post of director of the observatory in Paris. He determined the motions of Jupiter's satellites from observations of their eclipses and constructed tables of the latter; discovered (1671-84) four of Saturn's satellites and determined their periods of revolution, and determined (1664-67) the rotations of Jupiter, Venus, and Mars. To him is attributed the first systematic observation of the zodiacal light. Cassini made a close approximation (10") to the parallax of the sun, computed a table of refractions, gave a complete theory of the moon's libration, and gave as the obliquity of the ecliptic 23° 28′ 42′′, instead of 23%, and the eccentricity of the earth's orbit as 0.017, instead of Kepler's value, 0.018. In pure mathematics he discovered the curve known as the Cassinian oval (q.v.).

CASSINI, kå'se'ne', JACQUES (1677-1756). A French astronomer, son of Giovanni Domenico Cassini. He was born in Paris and succeeded his father as director of the observatory in 1712. He wrote several treatises on physical subjects, and in his De la grandeur et de la figure de la terre (1720) attempted to show that the earth must be a spheroid elongated at the poles. He traveled extensively in Europe, making the acquaintance of the leading scientific men of the time. He was admitted to the membership of the French Académie des Sciences at the age of 17, and two years later was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London.

CASSINI, JACQUES DOMINIQUE, COUNT DE (1748-1845). A French astronomer, son of César François Cassini, whom he succeeded as director of the Paris Observatory in 1784. He was the fourth Cassini in succession to fill this post, the connection of the family with the observatory thus lasting over the long period of 122 years. In 1789 he completed the great topographical map of France begun by his father. He incurred the ill will of the National Assembly and resigned his post in 1793. In the following year he was imprisoned, but regained his liberty after seven months, retiring to his country seat at Thury, where he spent the remainder of his life.

CASSIN'TAN O'VAL. A bicircular quartic curve, the locus of a moving point the product of whose distances from two fixed points is constant. Its Cartesian equation is

niscate; if m> a, it consists of a single oval. Cassinians are curves of the eighth class, except the lemniscate, which is of the sixth. In the case of two ovals, the curve is its own inverse with respect to a circle of radius √ a' — m*. The curves are fully discussed in Briot et Bouquet, Géométrie analytique (4th ed., Paris, 1890; Amer. ed., Chicago, 1896). For biography, consult Brocard, Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques (Bar-le-Duc, 1897). See CASSINI, G. D.; LEMNISCATE.

CASSINO, kås-se'nô. A city in the Province of Caserta, south Italy, called San Germano until 1871, on the Rapido, 85 miles southeast of Rome (Map: Italy, H 6). San Germano was a frequent residence of popes and emperors, and in 1230 Gregory IX and Frederick II concluded peace here. On March 16, 1815, Murat was defeated here by the Austrians. Half a mile to the south are the ruins of an amphitheatre erected by Ummidia Quadratilla, a Roman lady mentioned by Pliny in his letters (vii, 24). Farther on is the site of the villa of M. Terentius Varro, where Cicero (Phil. ii, 40) says Antony led a riotous life. On a hill above the city is the famous monastery of Monte Cassino (q.v.). Pop., 1881, 12,000; 1901, 13,473; 1911, 14,220.

CASSINO. A game at cards played by two, three, or four persons. Four cards are dealt, two at a time, to each player, and four are turned face up on the table in the same manner. After the hands are played, the greatest number of cards counts the holder three, the greatest number of spades one, big casino (the ten of diamonds) two, little casino (the deuce of spades) one, and each ace one, so that 11 can be possibly counted by one person; the whole game is 21. In cutting and in play the ace is low and counts one; the other cards rank upward in their usual value, the king being high. The play is to take from the table as many cards as possible, preferring spades, or aces, or big or little casino. The tricks are taken by pairing, i.e., by matching one card in the hand with another on the table; thus, a ten will take a ten, or a nine and an ace, or four aces and a six, or any other combination of spots that makes just 10. In "combining" the player may use any card in his hand-except a king, queen, or jack-to take two or more cards whose sum equals his card in value. Another part of the game is "building" cards on the board with one in hand: e.g., a player puts a four on a

six to make up 10, meaning to take both when his turn to play again comes; but any one having a ten may take them before him; or if he builds a six, the next player may make it a nine, and the next still may put on an ace and call it 10, but in building, the one who makes any particular number must hold the card that will take it. Some persons make a progressive build, i.e., if one has a nine and cannot at the time make a nine, he puts a four on a two and calls it six, having of course a three to make a nine when it is next his turn to play. But this kind of building is generally ruled out as irregular. A "sweep" (which counts one) is made when a player takes all of the cards with one card. In a modern variation of the game, the knave counts 11, the queen 12, the king 13, the ace 1 or 14, as the players may choose, and the "joker" 15. This plan greatly enlarges the number of combinations; as, e.g., an ace may possibly take three other aces, four deuces, and a tray, making 14 spots; or the ace may take the big and little casino and two aces, which would make six points in the game. Consult Foster's Complete Hoyle (New York, 1909).

CASSIO, kǎsh'i-ô, MICHAEL. The successor of Iago to the position of lieutenant of Othello, in Shakespeare's tragedy of the latter name. He is a weak-minded but reputable soldier, whose love of wine enables his enraged predecessor to direct against him the jealousy of Othello. He is finally stabbed by Iago.

CAS'SIODO'RUS, FLAVIUS MAGNUS AURELIUS (c.490-c.580). A Latin statesman and writer, the most profound and enlightened scholar of his age. He was born at Scylaceum (Squillace), in Bruttii (now Calabria), of a noble family long settled in that region. First raised to position under Odoacer, he held many important offices under Theodoric the Ostrogoth, From the quæstorship he passed to the consulship in 514; during the following years, though engaged in public services, he devoted his leisure to literary work and study. At the command of Theodoric he prepared a History of the Goths, which has survived only in the epitome made by Jordanis. After the death of Theodoric, Cassiodorus published a collection of valuable historical state papers, under the title Variarum Epistolarum Libri XII, the most important of his many writings, which gives the best information we possess regarding the Ostrogothic rule in Italy. Consult Hodgkin, Letters of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). About 540 Cassiodorus retired from public life and founded upon his estates at Vivarium, near Squillace, a monastery, in which he spent the remainder of his long life in study and pious endeavor. He required of his monks not only meditation, but also scholarship, and this included, as part of their monastic duty, the copying of manuscripts. To the happy example thus instituted we owe the preservation of most of the classic literature. His works are published by Migne in the Patrologia Latina (1865), vol. lxix. Consult Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i, especially pp. 258-270 (Cambridge, 1906).

CAS'SIOPEIA (Gk. Kaoσióñeca, Kassiopeia, Kaooiémela, Kassiepeia). 1. An Ethiopian queen, mother of Andromeda. 2. A constellation in the Northern Hemisphere, near Cepheus, and not far from the North Pole. It is distinguished by a group of six stars of the second, third, and fourth magnitudes, arranged so as to form a somewhat straggling letter W. It was in this

constellation that the famous "new star" of Tycho Brahe blazed out in November, 1572. This star is one of the most remarkable in astronomical annals. The brilliancy of its light, surpassing that of the large planets, and the suddenness with which it was extinguished, bear eloquent testimony to the extreme power of cosmic forces. Tycho's star retained its maximum brightness about 10 days only. Sixteen months elapsed before it finally disappeared from view. Tycho's records, made before the invention of the telescope, do not fix his star's place on the sky with great precision, but it has been identified with a reddish star of the eleventh magnitude which is situated very near the place indicated by him.

CASSIQUIARE, käs'sê-kyä'rå, or CASSIQUIARI, -rê. A river of Amazonas Territory, Venezuela, which leaves the Orinoco in lat. 3° 10' N., long. 66° 20′ W., taking from it onethird of its water, and, after a rapid southwest course of about 250 miles, joins the river Guainia, a branch of the Río Negro, in lat. 2° 5' N., long. 67° 40′ W. About 300 yards in breadth when it issues from the Orinoco, it gradually increases until at its union with the Río Negro it attains a width of 600 yards. By the means of this singular river, water communication is established between the systems of the Amazon and the Orinoco.

).

CASSIRER, kås'sê-râr', ERNST (1874A German philosopher, born at Breslau. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Leipzig, Munich, Heidelberg, and Marburg, and became lecturer in philosophy in the University of Berlin. His works include: Descartes Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis (1899); Leibnitz System in seinen wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen (1902); Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit (2 vols., 1906–07; 2d ed., 1911); Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff (1910).

CASSITERIDES, kăsʼsi-tĕr'i-dēz. See SCILLY

ISLANDS.

CASSIT ERITE (Lat. cassiterum, Gk. κaσolrepos, kassiteros, tin, of unknown origin, borrowed in O. Church Slav. kositeru, Skt. kastira, Ar. qazdir, tin). A tin dioxide that crystallizes in the tetragonal system. It occurs both massive and in the form of crystals, usually of a black or brown color, although sometimes red or yellow. Cassiterite is found in Cornwall, England (formerly in large quantities); in Bohemia and Saxony, on the Malay Peninsula, in Banca, Australia, and in Mexico. In the United States it is reported from Maine, Virginia, South Dakota, and California. It is an important ore of tin, as, when pure, it contains nearly 79 per cent of that metal. The ordinary massive cassiterite is called tin stone; when found in botryoidal or reniform shapes it is known as wood tin, and when in the state of pebbles or sand along the beds of streams it is called stream tin.

CASSIUS, kash'us, AVIDIUS. A Roman general under Marcus Aurelius, from Cyrrhus, in Syria. He won much renown by victories over the Parthians (162-165 A.D.). Subsequently he quelled a dangerous insurrection in Egypt and was appointed governor of all the Eastern Provinces. He organized a revolt and attempted to seize the Imperial throne, but was assassinated by two of his own officers (175).

CASSIUS, DIO. See Dio CASSIUS.

CASSIUS, PURPLE OF.

A dark-purple, red, or reddish-brown pigment. It was discovered by Andreas Cassius in the seventeenth century and may be obtained as a fine flocculent purple precipitate on adding a solution of stannous chloride containing stannic chloride to a solution of gold chloride. It may also be obtained by treating an alloy of gold (2 parts), tin (3.5 parts), and silver (15 parts) with nitric acid, which removes the silver and oxidizes the tin. The composition of purple of Cassius is variable, but it is believed that gold is present in it in the metallic state. Mixed with borax or some fusible glass, it is used by potters to produce a rich purple or rose tint in the finer qualities of pottery, and it has long been employed to give a ruby-red color to the better qualities of glass.

CASSIUS LONGI’NUS, GAIUS. 1. One of Cæsar's assassins. Though a tribune of the plebs, he sided with Pompeius and the aristocratic faction against Cæsar. He was taken prisoner by the latter, who pardoned him, and even made him one of his legati. In 44 B.C., through the influence of Cæsar, he was made prætor peregrinus and was promised the governorship of Syria for 43. Becoming incensed at Cæsar, because Cæsar appointed a younger man, M. Junius Brutus, prætor urbanus, he soon matured the conspiracy, and Cæsar fell by the daggers of assassins. Since popular feeling as displayed by the riots that broke out at Cæsar's funeral-was strongly against the murderers, and the military power fell into the hands of Marcus Antonius, Cassius fled to the East and made himself master of Syria. Afterward he joined forces with Brutus. (See BRUTUS, MARCUS JUNIUS.) Cassius's wife, a half sister of Brutus, survived him upward of 60 years (to 22 A.D.).

2. A Roman jurist (c.3-75 A.D.), consul in 30, proconsul of Asia, 40-41, and governor of Syria in 45-50. He was banished to Sardinia in 65, because he reverenced the memory of the Cassius who had helped to slay Cæsar, but was recalled by Vespasian. He wrote Libri Iuris Civilis, in 10 books, which was one of the sources of the Digest of Justinian (q.v.).

CASSIUS LONGINUS, QUINTUS, brother or cousin of the Cassius who helped to kill Cæsar. He was quæstor in Spain in 54 B.C. In the critical year 49, as tribune of the people, he warmly supported Cæsar and was rewarded with the governorship of Hispania Ulterior. His tyrannical rule caused a rebellion, which he put down without mercy. When his own troops revolted, he was besieged in Ulia, a town of Hispania Bætica. Through the influence of Marcus Lepidus, the triumvir, he was allowed to go free. He sought to sail from Malaca, but perished in a storm near the mouth of the Ebro (48 or 47 B.C.).

CASSIUS PARMEN'SIS, or GAIUS CASSIUS SEVERUS. One of the conspirators against Julius Cæsar. He was an adherent of Gaius Cassius Longinus and fought with him at Philippi. Afterward he joined Sextus Pompeius and finally supported Antonius until the defeat at Actium. He went to Athens, but was arrested and executed, about 30 B.C., by order of Augustus. He wrote satires, elegies, epigrams, and tragedies.

CASSIUS VIS'CELLI’NUS, SPURIUS. A Roman, thrice consul-in 502, 493, and 486 B.C. Despite the strong opposition of the patricians,

led by his fellow consul, Virginius Tricostus, he effected, in 486, the passage of the first agrarian law, which was, however, never enforced. See AGRARIAN LAW.

CAS'SIVELLAU'NUS (c.50 B.C.). A native chieftain chosen by the Britons to be their com mander when Cæsar made his second invasion, in 54 B.C. Cassivellaunus was routed in the first engagement, but continued to harass the Romans and to cut off all foragers or stragglers. Moved by reverses, he finally gave hostages to Cæsar, who commanded him also to pay a tribute and not to make war on the tribes who had aided the Romans. Consult Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. v.

CAS'SOCK. See COSTUME, ECCLESIASTICAL. CASSOP'OLIS. A village and the county seat of Cass Co., Mich., 90 miles west by south of Jackson, on the Michigan Central and the Chicago and Grand Trunk railroads. It is known as a summer resort, being in a picturesque lake region, and contains a public library, museum, and fine courthouse. The industrial establishments include flour and saw mills and a telephone-supply factory, etc. Pop., 1890, 1369; 1900, 1330; 1910, 1358.

CAS'SOWARY (Fr. casoar, Sp. casoario, casobar, Dutch casuaar, from Malay kassuwaris). A family (Casuariida) with the single genus Casuarius of ratite, or palæognathous, birds allied to the ostrich, but distinctively characterized by still greater shortness of wing, by a bony crest, by pendent wattles on the naked neck, and by three toes on each foot, the inner toe short and armed with a very long and sharp claw. There are also very important anatomical differences (see Huxley, Proceedings Zoological Society of London, 1867), especially in its digestive organs, which are not adapted to the same coarse diet. Cassowaries are still more closely allied to the emus, and with them form a group (Megistanes) peculiar to the Australian region and the Papuan subregion, including New Guinea, Salwatty, New Britain, the Aru Islands, northern Queensland, and Ceram. About 20 forms of cassowary are known, of which the most familiar is that from Ceram (Casuarius casuarius, or galeatus), known since 1596 and frequently seen in zoological gardens. It is the largest known bird except the ostrich, and its height, when erect, is about 5 feet. The color is brownish black. The feathers are loosely webbed and hang down, so that at a little distance the bird seems clothed with hair. Those of the rump are 14 inches long, hanging down in place of a tail. The aftershaft is as long as the feather proper. The plumage of the chick is striped, of the immature brown, while the feathers are black in the adult. The head and upper part of the neck are naked and of a bluish color, and there are two pendent wattles, partly red and partly blue, on the front of the neck. On the breast is a callous bare part, on which the bird rests its body on the ground. The bony crest or helmet reaches from the base of the bill to the middle of the crown and is about 3 inches high, exhibiting the most intense blue, purple, and scarlet, blended together. When attacked, it defends itself by kicking forward and downward and also obliquely backward with its stout naked legs and feet. There are only about five quills in each wing, somewhat resembling the quills of a porcupine, and at the end of the last joint of the wing there is a spur.

The cassowary lays six to eight eggs, which

1. COMMON CASSOWARY (Casuarius casuarius).

2. BECCARI'S CASSOWARY (Casuarius beccarii).

3. MILNE-EDWARD'S CASSOWARY (Casuarius edwardsi).

4. EMEU (Dromaeus novae-hollandiae).

5. GREAT TINAMOU (Rhynchotes rufescens). 6. OWEN'S KIWI (Apteryx oweni).