determined by one's philosophical views. Consult Caird, Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant (New York, 1889), and Harris, Hegel's Logic (Chicago, 1890).

CATEL, kȧ'těl', CHARLES-SIMON (1773-1830). A French musician, born at L'Aigle. In 1787 he became accompanist of the Paris Ecole Royale de Chant (at which he had previously studied under Gossec), and upon its consolidation with the new Conservatory he was made professor of harmony. He later became an inspector of the Conservatory and in 1815 was elected to the Academy. Catel's most lasting work was his Traité d'harmonie (1802), an excellent textbook, and long a standard in France. Of his numerous compositions, only the operas Sémiramis (1802) and Les Bayadères (1810) are of any importance. Consult F. Hellouin and J. Picard, Un musicien oublié, Catel (Paris, 1911).

CATE'NA (Lat., chain). A commentary composed of extracts from different authors, elucidating a text, especially the text of the Bible. The composition of such commentaries dates from the fourth century. They became very common from the sixth century to the close of the Middle Ages. Prominent among the earliest compilers is Cassiodorus (c.480-580), and most famous is Thomas Aquinas (c.1226–74). Many extracts from otherwise unknown works have thus been preserved. Consult the English translation of the Catena Aurea on the Gospels by the latter (6 vols., new ed., Oxford, 1870). For a full list of catena, see Harnack, Geschichte der altchristliche Litteratur (Leipzig, 18971904).

CATENA, kä-tâ'nä, VINCENZO DI BIAGIO (c.1470-c.1531). A Venetian painter of the Renaissance. The place of his birth is not known, but he was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, and his later works show the influence of Giorgione. To his early period belong "Madonna and Child" with landscape background (London); "Doge Leonardo Loredan Kneeling before the Madonna" (Ducal Palace, Venice), and "Holy Trinity" (San Simeone Grande, Venice); to a later period, "Knight Adoring the Christ Child" (National Gallery); "Christ Giving the Keys to Peter" (Gardner collection, Boston); "Count Raymond Fugger" (Berlin), and, finally, his masterpiece, "The Martyrdom of St. Christina" (1530, Santa Maria Mater Domini, Venice). Catena enjoyed the highest popularity among his contemporaries, who placed his works with those of Giorgione and Titian.

CAT'ENARY (Lat. catenarius, from catena, a chain). The curve formed by a flexible, homogeneous, and inextensible cord hanging freely between two points of support and acted on by no other force than gravity. If the cord is not homogeneous and the density varies, the cord hangs in a curve different in shape from the ordinary catenary; e.g., where the cord is such that the weight of any part of it is proportional to its horizontal projection, the curve is a parabola. The latter curve and the ordinary catenary are of importance in the theory of sus

M

CATENARY.

It possesses several remarkable properties, one of which is that its centre of gravity is lower than that of any other curve of equal perimeter, and with the same fixed points for its extremities. The catenary seems first to have attracted the attention of Galileo, who attributed to it a parabolic form. Joachim Jungius (1669) showed the error of this supposition, but was unable to determine the equation of the curve, a result accomplished by Leibnitz (1691). The curve was also elaborately investigated by Jakob Bernoulli. The bibliography of the subject is given in Brocard, Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques (Bar-le-Duc, 1897). For a discussion of the mechanical properties of the curve, consult Price, Analytical Mechanics, vol. i (Oxford, 1868), and Minchin, Treatise on Statics (Oxford, 1880).

CATʼENIP’ORA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. catena, chain + porus, pore). A generic name given by Lamarck in 1816 to the chain coral, a peculiar tabulate coral found in a fossil state in the Silurian rocks, to which the name "Halysites" had already been applied by Fischer in 1806. For description, see HALYSITES. CATERPILLAR. See BUTTERFLIES

AND

CATERPILLAR HUNTER. A predacious beetle of the family Carabidæ and genus Calosoma, of which several species prey upon caterpillars, earthworms, etc. To this genus belong a considerable number of species, of which a common one (Calosoma scrutator) is illustrated in the Colored Plate of INSECTS. See GROUND BEETLE.

CATESBY, kāts bĭ, MARK (c.1679-1749). An English naturalist, born probably in London. He visited North America and the Bahamas in 1712-19 and afterward published Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, with colored figures drawn and etched by himself (1722-26). These were the first drawings of North American animals to be published. He also published Hortus BritannoAmericanus (1737) and Migration of Birds (1747).

CATFISH (so called from the purring sound when the fish is taken from the water). One of a group of physostomous (soft-rayed) fishes of both salt and fresh waters, comprising the order Nematognathi and the family Siluride and its allies. "The fishes of this order," writes Dr. D. S. Jordan, "agree in having the maxillary bone imperfectly developed, and forming the basis of a long fleshy feeler or barbel [and in] . . . the presence, in most cases, of additional pairs of barbels about the mouth, near the tip of the upper or the lower jaw, or both; the absence of scales and the presence in many species, especially those found in tropical waters, of bony plates. These sometimes form a more or less perfect coat of mail on the sides of the body; at other times they form a shield on the top and back of the head. Another feature is the development, in most cases, of the first ray in the dorsal and pectoral fins as a strong, stiff, sharp, serrated spine which forms an effective weapon of defense. The spines of the pectoral fins are strongest, and they are usually 'set'i.e., firmly erected-whenever the fish is caught

1. MAD TOM (Schilbeodes miurus).

2. GAFF-TOPSAIL CATFISH (Felichthys felis). 3. SEA CATFISH (Galeichthys felis).

4. EUROPEAN CATFISH OR WELS (Silurus glanis).

5. STONE CATFISH (Noturus flavus).

6. BLACK BULLHEAD (Ameiurus melas).

or attacked. These spines are a source of much annoyance to fishermen, and there are few persons. ... in the Eastern States who have not had some painful experience with the 'horns' of a catfish." The wounds made by these spines often heal with difficulty, owing to the jagged nature of the cut and to the slime introduced; in one genus (Noturus), moreover, a poison gland is connected with the pectoral spine. They use the spine in ugly fights among themselves. The catfishes inhabit the fresh waters and shallow coastal waters of the warmer parts of America, Africa, and the Orient, but are represented by only a single European species, the typical silurus of the Latins, and the sheatfish of English writers. (See SIIEATFISH.) They vary from 2 inches to a dozen feet or more in length, and may exceed 200 pounds in weight. Most of them are good food and everywhere enter into the diet of the people. habits they are comparatively sluggish, remain close to the bottom, and are carnivorous and voracious, eating eggs and fry of aquatic animals, and seizing such fishes, amphibians, and birds as they can overcome. Few are swift swimmers, but they lurk in wait for prey, being almost invisible by reason of their dull, dark colors, and making a quick rush; consequently the larger ones are among the most destructive enemies of aquatic life.

In

The North American catfishes have the skin wholly naked and are familiarly represented by the horned pout. (See BULLHEAD.) The same genus (Amiurus) contains several other species often termed mud cats. The stone cats belong to the genus Noturus, are small, comparatively slender, dark-hued, and inflict poisoned wounds. Another genus, the channel cats (Ictalurus), dwell in running streams and lakes and include many large forms, the fork-tailed catfish of the Great Lakes (Ictalurus lacustris) sometimes weighing 100 pounds; while the "white" channel cat (Ictalurus ponderosus, or punctatus) of the Mississippi River valley may grow to 150 pounds, and become the largest of our freshwater fishes except the California sturgeon. An illustrated monograph of the fresh-water species, by Dr. D. S. Jordan, will be found in Bulletin No. 10 (1877) of the United States National Museum at Washington. The sea catfish are closely allied to the channel cats, and two species are common along the Atlantic coast, both 2 to 5 feet long, and blue above the silvery bellies; but more than 100 species of this marine group, which haunt sandy bottoms near shore and furnish poor food, are scattered through the tropics, especially in the East Indies.

The South American fresh waters abound in catfishes of the genus Pimelodus and its allies, the largest species of which is the leopard cat, or suravi (Pimelodus frati), from rivers of Argentina and Uruguay, which is 6 to 7 feet long, and yellow, spotted with black. Another characteristic South American group is that of the mailed cats, of the genus Callichthys, in which the body is almost entirely covered by four rows of large, hard, narrow, scaly plates, two rows on each side, and the head is well covered with bony plates. They are said to be able to make their way over land from a pool which may be drying up to another some distance away; sometimes they bury themselves in the mud of wet meadows. They build their nests near the margin of the water, at the beginning. of the rainy season, both sexes guarding them

until the eggs are hatched. The genera Doras, Loricaria, and Arges are allied groups of many species. Africa abounds in fishes of this family, of which the best known is the bayad (q.v.) of the Nile. A different Nile catfish (Malap terurus electricus) has the power of delivering an effective electric shock. (See ELECTRIC FISHES.) Many other species, some of large size, having the general characteristics outlined above, haunt the sluggish rivers and estuaries of India, Siam, China, and the larger islands thence to Australia, with varying importance as food. Among these is notable the eel-like genus Clarias, "eelpouts," about 30 species of which are known, some reaching 6 feet in length. The catfishes are known as fossils well back into the Tertiary.

The name applied to various fishes of other families; as, in England, to the wolf fish (Anarrhichas lupus), the cusk, and one or more small sharks. In Australasia the stargazers (Kathetostoma) are called catfish, and elsewhere the chimæras are called "sea cats."

CATGUT (probably a corruption, by popular confusion with kit, cat, of kit, fiddle, apparently from AS. cytere, from Lat. cithara, Gk. κιápa, kithara, guitar, and gut, Ger. Gotte, gutter, from AS. géotan, Goth, giutan, Ger. geissen, Lat. fundere, Gk. xeiv, chein, to pour). A substance employed in the manufacture of the strings of violins, harps, guitars, and other musical instruments, and also used for the cords carrying clock weights, in the bows of archers, and for whip cord. It is generally prepared from the intestines of sheep, rarely from those of the horse, ass, or mule, but never from those of the cat. The first stage in the operation is the thorough cleansing of the intestines from adherent fæculent and fatty matters, after which they are steeped in water for several days, so as to loosen the external membrane, which can then be removed by scraping with a blunt knife. The material which is thus scraped off is employed for the cords of battledores and rackets, and also as thread in sewing the ends of intestines together. The scraped intestines are then steeped in water and scraped again, treated with a dilute solution of alkali (4 oz. potash, 4 oz. carbonate of potash, and 3 to 4 gallons of water, with occasionally a little alum), drawn through a perforated brass thimble, and assorted into their respective sizes. In order to destroy any adherent animal matter, which would lead to putrefaction and the consequent development of offensive odors, it is customary to subject the catgut to the fumes of burning sulphur (sulphuric acid). The best strings are used for musical instruments, and those which come from Italy and are known as Roman strings are the strongest. They are remarkable for their clearness and transparency. The surgeon also uses the best grades of catgut in closing wounds. Cords for suspending clock weights are made up of catgut split longitudinally into several lengths. Whipcord is made from catgut which has been twisted in a manner somewhat similar to single-corded ropes.

CATH'ARI, or CATHARISTS (ML., from Gk. kalapós, katharos, pure). A name very generally given to various sects which appeared in the Church during the Middle Ages. It appears to have been sometimes assumed in profession of a purity of doctrine and morals superior to that which generally prevailed in the Church, sometimes bestowed ironically in ridi

cule of such a profession. It was used as a designation of the Novatians (q.v.) of the third century, the Paulicians (q.v.) of the seventh and succeeding centuries; but more usually of sects which appeared in Lombardy in the beginning of the eleventh century, and afterward in France and the west of Germany, and of the Bogomiles of the twelfth century. In the elev enth century the Patarenes appeared in Milan and were called Cathari. The names "Albigenses" and "Cathari" are often used as equivalent to one another; in fact, it is almost impossible to differentiate the various bodies known by different names and all called Cathari. Manicheism, Gnosticism, and Montanism are ascribed to the Cathari; but as their doctrines were a confused agglomeration of different doctrines, and consequently the descriptions of contemporary writers are not always concordant, it is difficult to make out their system in detail. It appears quite certain that the Cathari differed among themselves in their doctrines, and in the degree of their opposition to the dominant Church. Some of them advocated and practiced a rigid asceticism. There is no good evidence that any of them nearly approached to the doctrines of the Reformation, although in their rejection of tradition, of the authority of Rome, of the worship of saints and images, etc., there are notable points of agreement with the views of the reformers. Consult: C. Schmidt, La secte des Cathares (Strassburg, 1849); J. J. Döllinger, Sektengeschichte, vol. ii (Munich, 1890); also H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition (3 vols., New York, 1888); and Molinier, "L'Eglise et la société Cathares," in Revue Historique, vols. xciv and xcv (Paris, 1907).

CATH'ARINE (Fr. Catherine, Lat. Catharina, Gk. Kalapivn, Katharine from κaðapós, katharos, pure). The name of six saints of the Roman Catholic church. The simple designation of St. Catharine, however, is often given to CATHARINE OF ALEXANDRIA, said to have been of royal descent, who, publicly confessing Christianity at a sacrificial feast appointed by the Emperor Maximinus, was put to death in 307 A.D., after being tortured on a wheel. Hence the name of "St. Catharine's wheel." She is regarded as the patroness of girls' schools. Her day is November 25 or March 5. (See her life in the publications of the Early English Text Society; also in those of the Roxburghe Club, both London, 1884.)

SAINT CATHARINE OF SIENA, daughter of Jacomo Benincasa, а dyer of Siena, was born there in 1347; practiced extraordinary mortifications, and was said to have been favored with especial tokens of favor by Christ, whose wounds were impressed upon her body. (See STIGMATIZATION.) She became a Dominican, and died in Rome, April 29, 1380. She wrote devotional pieces, letters, and poems; the best edition appeared in Siena and Lucca, in 1707-54 (in 5 vols., 4to), under the title of Opere della serafica Santa Catarina. Her letters were published in French (Paris, 1854; best in the original, 4 vols., Florence, 1860). In English have appeared Saint Catherine of Siena as Seen in her Letters (London, 1905); Dialogues of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine of Siena (London, 1896); the dialogue De Per fectione is translated in Miss Drane's biography mentioned below. Consult her life by J. E. Butler (4th ed., London, 1895); Augusta I. Drane (London, 1880); Scudder (New York,

1905); Gardner (New York, 1908); Roberts (New York, 1906).

SAINT CATHarine of GENOA was born in 1447 of the distinguished Genoese family Fieschi. Her father was Viceroy of Naples under René of Anjou. She was very beautiful. Her own wish was to become a nun, but her parents gave her in marriage to a Genoese nobleman, Giuliano Adorno (Jan. 13, 1463), in order to heal the breach which had come between the two families. Her married life was unhappy, and she suffered much not only from her husband's personal treatment, but from his extravagance and licentiousness. At last bankruptcy overtook him and they were reduced to poverty. Then her spiritual

nature showed itself. She started on a career of philanthropy as nurse (1479) and from 1491 to 1497 was chief nurse in a great hospital. Her husband was converted through her influence, entered the third order of St. Francis, and joined her in charitable labors. Her ascetic piety was extraordinary. It is said that from 1478 to 1500 she fasted all Advent and all Lent, and took no nourishment of any kind, but drank water mingled with vinegar and salt. She died Sept. 15, 1510, having won so high a reputation for piety that Pope Clement XII canonized her in 1737; and Benedict XIV put her in the Martyrology under March 22; but in the Acta Sanctorum she is found under September 5. She had many ardent disciples, and one of them wrote from her lips, in Italian, the Treatise on Purgatory (Eng. trans., London, 1878). Her life, written by T. de Bussierce, prefaced a French translation of her works (Paris, 1860). See also her life by Fliche (Eng. trans., New York, 1874), and Von Hugel, The Mystical Element in Religion (New York, 1909).

SAINT CATHARINE OF BOLOGNA and SAINT CATHARINE OF SWEDEN (1331-81), the fourth daughter of St. Birgitta (or Bridget) of Sweden, are of less note.

CATHARINE I (?-1727). Mistress and wife of Peter the Great, and Empress of Russia from 1725 to 1727. She was born between 1682 and 1685, the daughter of a Lithuanian peasant, Samuel Skavronski, or perhaps of a Baltic nobleman, Colonel Rosen. Her mother was undoubtedly a serf. She was brought up as a foundling by the pastor Glück, at Ringen and Marienburg, in Livonia, and was married to a dragoon, who was immediately ordered into active service. At the taking of Marienburg by the Russians, in 1702, Glück threw himself and his family on the mercy of the Russian commander, Sheremetieff, who was attracted by the beautiful face of the young peasant girl and kept her with him when the other captives were forwarded to Moscow. A few months later Menshikoff, the favorite of Peter, saw her, and took advantage of his rank and power to deprive Sheremetieff of his prize, only to be in turn despoiled by Peter himself. With a figure and bearing that bore testimony to her ignoble birth, she seems nevertheless to have had in her face a peculiar charm, and, unlettered though she was, she possessed an active and practical mind that appealed to Peter. She became his most influential adviser and confidant, exercising over this man of iron will and violent passions an influence such as no other person had. Peter profited by her resourceful intellect in the campaign against the Turks in 1711, and the colored accounts that have come down to us represent her as having saved the Czar and his army when they were hemmed