fessor of psychology at Columbia. He became editor of Science, The l'opular Science Monthly, American Men of Science (1906; 2d ed., 1910), and The American Naturalist.

CATTELL, WILLIAM CASSIDY (1827-98). An American Presbyterian divine and educator. He was born at Salem, N. J., Aug. 30, 1827; graduated at Princeton College (1848) and at the theological seminary (1852); was professor of Latin and Greek in Lafayette College, Pa., 185560, and president from 1863 to 1883. His presidency evinced executive ability of a high order. He was secretary of the Board of Ministerial Relief of the Presbyterian Church from 1883 until his death, in Philadelphia, Feb. 11, 1898.

CAT TERMOLE, GEORGE (1800-68). An English painter in water color. He was born at Dickleborough, Norfolk, and studied in London under the architectural draftsman, John Britton. His fame rests chiefly on the 100 or more historical and genre pictures, landscapes, and portraits which he exhibited at the Society for Painters in Water Color from 1822 to 1850. Many of these, as "The Diet at Spires," his masterpiece, "Grace in the Refectory," "The Monk's Library" are in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Others are in the National Gallery, in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, etc. He also furnished illustrations for Scott's novels and poems, several of Dickens's novels, the Historical Annual, with text by his brother Richard, and for other works. Cattermole is one of the most important representatives of the Romantic movement in English art. His aquarelles show refined, artistic taste, a gift of color, original and dramatic conception, and spirited execution. Among his intimate friends were Dickens, Thackeray, Landseer, and Browning.

CAT THYME, tim. See GERMANDER. CATTI, or CHATTI, kǎt'tī. A German people who inhabited a country included in the present Hesse and the Prussian Province of Hesse-Nassau. The southwestern part of their territory, around Mattiacum, was conquered by the Romans under Drusus. The Catti took part in the general rising of the Germans under Arminius. Tacitus praises them as excellent foot soldiers. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius they made incursions into Roman Germany and Rhætia. Caracalla failed in an expedition against them and the Alemanni. About the middle of that century their name began to give place to that of the Franks, and is last mentioned by Claudian in the latter part of the fourth century. See SUEVI.

derived from the Anglo-Saxon word neótan ('to make use of'). The word "cattle" is another form of the words "chattel" and "capital," meaning property, cattle among many primitive peoples being the most valuable goods, and frequently the measure of value of other kinds of property. The old English equivalent for cattle is "kine" or "kyan," derived from cy, the plural of cu, Anglo-Saxon for "cow." The term "ox" is often used for cattle in general, but in a restricted sense it signifies mature castrated male cattle used for draft purposes, though in continental Europe the term has sometimes been applied to a male not castrated.

Cattle were among the first animals domesticated by man in the early period of the world's history, and have been the most valuable and necessary to his highest welfare in all ages and It was stages of civilization since that time. formerly thought that European breeds of cattle were domesticated from a wild form (Bos primigenius) which roamed over Europe and a But large part of Asia in prehistoric times. the oldest forms of domesticated cattle appear to be of a different type (Bos longifrons), and it is still an open question as to whether longifrons is a domesticated form of primigenius or a distinct species which originated in Asia and was taken to Europe during the great Aryan Variations evidently began at an migration. early period, although no very high degree of was effected by the ancients. development Within the last two centuries especially, much attention has been paid to selecting and breeding cattle adapted to special conditions and purposes and to developing the beef and milk producing qualities. It is stated that there are now in various parts of the world over 300 distinct breeds of cattle. The principal and most valuable breeds of America have been derived from Great Britain and other portions of northwestern Europe. The most important results of man's agency in improving cattle by breeding, care, and management have been a tendency of the animals to mature at an earlier age, and readily to lay on flesh and fat, and an increase of the milk production far beyond the needs of the calf, and prolongation of the natural period of milk flow. At present the various recognized breeds of domestic cattle may be classified as beef cattle and dairy cattle. Breeds that are good for both beef and milk productions are often referred to as "dual-purpose cattle."

The cattle industry has assumed very large proportions in the United States. At the close of 1913 there were estimated to be 20,497,000 milch cows worth $922,783,000, and 36,030,000 other cattle valued at $949,645,000. Only a small proportion of these were pure-bred registered stock.

Beef Cattle. The principal breeds of beef cattle in Great Britain and the United States are the Shorthorn, Hereford, Galloway, Devon, These Polled Durham, and Aberdeen-Angus. breeds all originated in Great Britain and for the most part took their names from the county or district whence they came. The cattle which have been most famous as a breed in England and America, which have received the longest and closest attention of breeders and improvers, The name are the Shorthorns or Durhams. Shorthorns was probably given to distinguish them from the rival race of Bakewell's Longhorns, which they soon surpassed. They are red and white cattle (the colors being variously blended and often roan), are rectangular in out

line, and have horns of moderate length. They are notable for early maturity, beauty of form, quick-fattening qualities, and minimum amount of waste in slaughtering. Although excellent beef cattle, many of the cows are good milkers, and the breed is considered the best of all for the dual purpose of producing meat and milk. The Herefords, originated in the county of Hereford, are red with white on face, chest, belly, feet, and over the tops of the shoulders. They are close rivals of Shorthorns as beef cattle, but are inferior dairy cattle, many giving scarcely enough milk to raise a calf. The Galloways are jet-black and hornless, strongly built and rather low in stature. They are hardy in constitution and much esteemed for beef, but very poor dairy cattle. The Aberdeen-Angus are also hornless and black, and bear a general resemblance to the Galloways, but mature earlier and are superior as beef animals. For a number of years animals of this breed have won the grand championship at the International Stock Show held at Chicago. The Devons are an exceedingly symmetrical, beautiful race, originated in North and South Devonshire. They are of a rich red color, and although the bulls and cows are rather small, the oxen grow to great size. The Devon oxen have long been prized as work animals. There are good examples of the beef and dairy types in this breed. The Polled Durham breed originated in the United States by the selection of "sports" which occurred in the Shorthorn breed. As to size, form, color, and general appearance they resemble the typical Shorthorn beef form without the horns. The native cattle of the Southwest, known as the "Texas steer," was originally from Spanish stock imported during Colonial times. This type is fast disappearing because of the introduction of better breeds. The beef animal has been specifically designed for the most favorable production of the best cuts, and while there are many cows which combine milk and beef production to a profitable degree, a good carcass of beef from a steer of a pronounced dairy type or breed is rarely seen. The beef type of animals is rectangular in outline, low, broad, deep, smooth, and even-no wedgeshape or sharp protruding spinal column is wanted for the block. Broad, well-covered backs and ribs are absolutely necessary to a good carcass of beef, and no other excellences will compensate for the lack of this essential. It is necessary both to breed and feed for thickness in these parts. Animals that are soft and patchy, or hard and rolled on the back, are sure to give defective and objectionable carcasses, even though they are thick, and they also cut up with correspondingly greater waste. A marked and important change has taken place in the profitable type of cattle within comparatively recent years. The present demand is for quality and finish rather than size. The modern type makes beef at decidedly more profit and economy to both the producer and the butcher, and furnishes the consumer a far superior article.

Dairy Cattle. In no line of improvement of live stock have more remarkable results been attained than in the case of the dairy cow. This improvement has taken place in the earliness of maturity, the length of the milking period, the quantity and richness of the milk produced and the general economy of production. In the modern dairy cow the tendency to lay on flesh, so highly developed in beef animals, has been largely eliminated, and in its place the ability to

convert economically the food eaten into milk has been cultivated in a high degree. Continued breeding to a special purpose and better methods of feeding have changed the former short milking period, limited almost to the pasture season, to a comparatively even flow of milk during 10 or 11 months of every year. A cow that does not average six or seven quarts of milk a day for 300 days in the year, aggregating. 4000 pounds, is not considered very profitable. There are many herds having an average yearly production of 5000 pounds per cow, and single animals are numerous which give 10 or 12 times their own weight in milk during a year. Quality has been so improved that the milk of many a cow will make as much butter in a week as did that of three or four average cows of the middle of the last century.

The points observed in judging dairy cows are shown in the accompanying illustration, taken from a publication of the United States Department of Agriculture:

Different scales of points have been adopted by the various breeders' associations.

The breeds of dairy cattle most common in the United States and England at the present time are Ayrshire, Holstein, Guernsey, Jersey, Red Poll, French Canadian, Dutch Belted, Brown Swiss, and Shorthorns. The Ayrshires, named for the county of that name in the southwest of Scotland, are medium-sized cows, short-legged, fine-boned, and very active. The general form is the wedge shape, regarded as typical of cows of dairy excellence, and good specimens are thin when in milk. The prevailing color is red and white, in spots variously proportioned, but not mixed. The cows are large and persistent milkers, but the fat globules are small, which causes the cream to rise slowly. An average yield of 5500 pounds of milk a year per cow for a working herd is often realized. One noted herd has an average for 19 years of over 6400 pounds per cow, and individuals produce over 15,000 pounds a year. Butter records are not numerous, but herds average 300 to 400 pounds a year, and there are individual records of as high as 900 pounds.

The Jersey and Guernsey breeds were both originated in the Channel Islands, but in the development of the latter more of the characteristics of the parent stock of Normandy have been retained. They were both formerly called Alderneys. The Guernseys are rather larger than the Jerseys, strong-boned, and are claimed to be hardier. They are light in color,

with darker shades approaching brown, and have a yellow skin. The milk of both breeds is unusually rich in fat, the fat globules being large and separating readily in creaming. The Guernseys are liberal milkers. At home the

average cow is expected to produce 5000 pounds of milk and 300 pounds of butter a year without high feeding. In the United States they are usually fed higher and respond accordingly. There are records of several herds which have averaged over 6000 pounds of milk and 350 pounds of butter a year. Individual cows have produced over 18,000 pounds of milk and 1000 pounds of butter a year. The Jerseys are the smallest of the better dairy breeds, though in the United States they have been considerably

SKULL AND TEETH OF THE COW.

Dentition of a young Jersey cow, showing the small incisors and canines crowded in the extremity of the lower jaw (none in the upper jaw), and the great grinders (molars and premolars).

increased in size. The color varies from cream to various shades of fawn, tan, and mouse color, dark brown and even black. They have beautiful heads, with intelligent faces, and rather small, close horns. The body is well rounded, and the udder is of good size, with highly developed milk veins. They are irregular in outline and thin in flesh. Like the Guernseys, they are not large, but are persistent milkers, and their milk is the richest of all breeds. For many years they have been bred especially for butter production, although American breeders have striven with considerable success to increase the milk yield without diminishing the quality. Good herds produce from 3500 to 4500 pounds of milk a year, and several herd records show averages of 6000 and 7000 pounds per cow. Single cows produce over 1000 pounds of butter a year, and there are numerous records of 25 to 30 pounds of butter a week. Jerseys are heavy feeders, and as a rule will bear high feeding and forcing for long periods unusually well. Brown Bessie, the famous champion butter cow of the Chicago World's Fair dairy test, averaged over 40 pounds of milk a day for five months, and made 3 pounds of butter a day several times. The Holsteins, or Holstein-Friesians, of north Holland

and Friesland, are black and white, irregularly marked, but not mixed, large in frame, strong, and usually in good flesh. The udder is often of extraordinary size in conformity with the reputation of the breed for enormous milk production. It is not unusual for a cow to give more than her own weight in milk every month for 10 or 12 consecutive months, and there are numerous instances of yields of 100 pounds or more a day, and 20,000 to 30,000 pounds a year, although 40 to 60 pounds a day, or 7500 to 8000 pounds a year, is considered an average. But the milk is usually poorer in fat than that of some breeds. The fat globules are quite small, and the cream does not rise readily on setting. There are some families of Holsteins, however, which give milk of fully average richness and are profitable butter producers.

The Red Polls are a comparatively new breed, resembling the Devons, but are hornless. They are only fair dairy cattle, being in the class of breeds which aim to serve the dual purpose of milk and beef production. The Shorthorns, described above as beef cattle, include many individuals notable for milk production. In the best milking strains the cows are rather more angular in outline than the beef types and have large, hairy udders. The Shorthorns made a surprisingly good showing in the World's Fair breed test (1893), and records of several herds in the United States show a milking period of 275 days and an average production of 6500 pounds of milk.

French Canadians are a breed developed in Canada from native stock, most of which came originally from France. They resemble the Jerseys in type and are very hardy. The Brown Swiss, which originated in Switzerland, also resemble the Jerseys in color, but are much coarser than most dairy breeds. Many of them, however, are excellent milkers. The Dutch Belted are a small type of Holsteins with a broad white band about the middle of the body, the remainder of the animal being black in color. Cattle of several other European breeds have been brought to the United States, but not in sufficient numbers to be of any significance to the cattle industry. Recently zebus from India to be used in crossing with breeds in Texas because of their resistance to tick fever have been introduced.

Formerly certain dairy breeds were considered especially adapted to cheese making, and others to butter making, and the two qualities were supposed to be to a certain extent incompatible. The agricultural experiment stations have shown, however, that this is not the case, but that the value of milk for cheese making as well as for butter making is measured by its fat content. The richness of the milk in fat is to some extent a breed characteristic, although within the breed the variations in this respect are quite wide in the case of different cows. The following averages of a large number of analyses of milk from cows of different breeds are something of an indication of the composition:

Attempts to determine by experiment which is the best dairy breed have not been entirely satisfactory or convincing, on account of the large number of factors which have to be taken into account in determining this, aside from the yield and composition of the milk, such as hardiness, constitution, adaptability to given conditions, feed requirements and economy, ultimate value for beef, etc.

In the Chicago World's Fair breed test, although open to all, only the Guernsey, Jersey, and Shorthorn breeders' associations entered the competition, and they selected the best cows of their respective breeds to be found. The results of the butter and cheese tests with these three breeds are summarized as follows:

"Breeds of Dairy Cattle," in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin 106 (Washington, 1898); T. McKenny Hughes, On the more Important Breeds of Cattle which have been Recognized in the British Isles, and their Relation to Other Archæological and Historical Discoveries (Westminster, 1896); Richard Lydekker, Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats of All Lands, Living and Extinct (London, 1898); Craig, Judging Live Stock (1901); Lane, "Records of Dairy Cows in the United States," Bulletin 75, Bureau of Animal Industry (Washington, 1905); Lydekker, The Ox and its Kindred (London, 1912); Keller, Naturgeschichte der Haustiere (Berlin, 1905); Morse, "The Ancestry of Domesticated Cattle," Report Bu

The various breeds continue to have their advocates and admirers, and each breed has some points of advantage. The pure-bred stock, however, comprise only a very small fraction of the dairy cows of the United States and Canada. The larger part of the cows are grades, i.e., crosses of natives or ordinary cows with pure breeds. Among these are many excellent animals, rivaling the thoroughbreds in amount and economy of milk production. Much attention is now being given by dairymen to testing the individual cows of their herds, determining which are the most profitable ones, and gradually eliminating the inferior ones. In this way an improvement of the ordinary stock is going on which in some sections has already raised the cows to a high degree of excellence and will ultimately result in a much higher standard for good dairy cows.

Bibliography. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain (Edinburgh, 1907); Alvord,

Breeds of Beef Cattle," Bulletin 34, Bureau of Animal Industry (Washington, 1902); Shaw, Management and Feeding of Cattle (New York, 1909); Fream, Complete Grazier (London, 1900); Werner, Rinderzucht (Berlin, 1912); Wilson, Evolution of British Cattle (Edinburgh, 1910); "Cattle and Dairy Farming," 2 vols. in Consular Reports (Washington, 1887); C. H. Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk-Production (New York, 1911). See also FEEDING FARM ANIMALS; DAIRYING; BREEDS AND BREEDING; UNITED STATES, Cattle; Plate of WILD CATTLE.

CATTLE, CHILLINGHAM. A breed of the socalled wild cattle of Great Britain (Bos taurus, var. scoticus), preserved in Chillingham Park, Northumberland, England. This park, the prop erty of the Earl of Tankerville, is a remnant of one of the great forests of Great Britain. It was formerly believed that these cattle and other herds which are found at Cadzow, near Chillingham, at Chartley (Staffordshire), Som