between the French Emperor and Cavour (July, 1858), at which the agreement was made which was to bring France to the side of Italy in the contest with Austria. Cavour's masterful diplomacy is well illustrated in connection with the Austrian War. To the Englishman, Mr. Odo Russell, who did not believe Austria would be so unwise as to declare war, Cavour said, in the spring of 1859, that he would force her to do so, and named the first week in May as the time. A few days before that time Austria had actually committed the desired indiscretion. The royal speech to Parliament, Jan. 10, 1859, prepared by the King, but revised by Cavour and Napoleon III, voiced the spirit of united Italy against the foreign oppressor. Napoleon hesitated on the verge of war and sought to have a congress held, and England proposed that all the Italian States should be admitted; but Austria lost its chance of retaining its hold on Italy by refusing to accede to the English proposal, and demanding the unconditional disarmament of Sardinia. Austria's offensive ultimatum to Sardinia left no alternative for Napoleon but to support his ally. In the campaign of 1859 (see ITALY) the War Minister, La Marmora (q.v.), took command of the Sardinian forces, and Cavour assumed the onerous duties of Minister of War. When Napoleon, who had declared that Italy should be free "from the Alps to the Adriatic," made with Austria the Peace of Villafranca without consulting his ally, and thus abandoned the Italian cause at a time when the expulsion of Austria from the peninsula seemed certain, Cavour was frantic with rage and grief. He resigned his office and went into retirement at Leri, feeling that this betrayal of Italy had disgraced him; but in reality he had become the idol of an Italy which now learned to know the depth of his patriotism and the farsightedness of his policy. The new ministry under Rattazzi proved unequal to the situation; in England, the return of the Whigs to power under Lord Palmerston enlisted that country more actively in the Italian interest; and in January, 1860, Cavour returned to his post at the head of the government. The cession of Savoy and Nice to France, in return for the union of northern Italy, had been agreed upon at Plombières, and Cavour now took his stand upon the execution of the pledge. It was one of the hardest tasks of his life, and the act for which he has been most criticized.

The next move in the campaign for the union of Italy came from southern Italy, in the form of an insurrection in Sicily against the Bourbon government. This, and Garibaldi's violation of international comity in conducting an expedition in aid of the Sicilian revolutionists, were not planned or promoted by Cavour; but when they had become facts he characteristically winked at their irregularity and prepared to check excesses and to make the most of any opportunity they might offer. When Garibaldi crossed the Straits of Messina and entered the Neapolitan mainland, Cavour sent a Sardinian army into Umbria and the Marches, and another great step towards Italian unity was taken in the contest for southern Italy and the papal domains. Gari baldi's arbitrary methods made him Cavour's antagonist at this time, though the two men always respected and appreciated each other. (See GARIBALDI.) On Oct. 11, 1860, true to his lifelong principles, Cavour secured the passage of a bill by the Piedmontese Parliament author

izing the government to incorporate such provinces in central and southern Italy as should' express their desire therefor by a plébiscite. At the beginning of 1861 all Italy, except Venetia and Rome, was united, and on February 18 the first Italian Parliament met in Turin. Cavour now sought to complete the historic Italy by having Rome made the capital, and in May a vote of Parliament to that effect was passed; but Cavour did not live to see this consummation brought about, nor to see the annexation of Venetia. He died in Turin, June 6, 1861, worn out by the excessive labors and cares of his public life.

Count Cavour never married. The one brief romance of his youth brought color and inspiration into his life through a woman's devoted and unselfish love, but not even her name is known, and the attachment was far greater on her part than on his. He was beloved by the peasants on his estates and trusted by the common people generally. His King, whom he served so faithfully, never felt quite comfortable when his masterful subject was in power, but he had implicit confidence in him and believed in his success; and it was so with all his associates-his power lay in the assurance of success. He was admired by European statesmen. Napoleon said at Plombières: "There are only three men in Europe we two and then a third whom I will not name." And the veteran Metternich is reported to have remarked: "There is only one diplomatist in Europe; but unfortunately he is against us-it is M. de Cavour." With all his determination, and his frequent disregard of the nature of the means used to attain his ends, Cavour held firmly to the principles of civil liberty and constitutional government. He was equally distrustful of the doctrinaire republicanism of Mazzini, whom he never liked, and of autocracy in any guise. It is a fine testimonial to his patriotism that he enjoyed the confidence of the exiled Venetian patriot and devoted republican, Manin, in spite of his distrust of Manin's political doctrines. From their first meeting in Paris Manin saw in Cavour the regenerator of Italy. Cavour's writings and speeches on political subjects have been published as Opere politicoeconomiche del conte Camillo di Cavour (Coneo, 1855), and Discorsi parlementari del conte Camillo di Cavour, published by order of the Chamber of Deputies (Turin, 1863-80).

Consult: Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour (Cambridge, 1911); Mazade, Le comte de Cavour (Paris, 1877); Massari, Il conte di Cavour (Turin, 1873); Countess Cesaresco, Cavour (New York, 1898); Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento d'Italia (Turin, 1888-97); Artom and Blanc, Il conte di Cavour in parlamento (Florence, 1868); Cadogan, Makers of Modern History (New York, 1905); Orsini, Cavour and the Making of Modern Italy, 1810-61 (New York, 1914); also the memoirs and correspondence of Kossuth, D'Azeglio, Ricasoli, La Farina, and others. A full bibliography will be found in Stillman, The Union of Italy (Cambridge, 1898).

CAVY, kāʼvi (Neo-Lat., Port. cavia, from native Indian word). A small South American rodent of the family Caviidæ, allied to the capybara and the agoutis, exclusively neotropical, and represented familiarly by the guinea pig. The cavies are restless, seminocturnal, herbage-eating creatures, dwelling in burrows or crevices, increasing rapidly, and furnishing

1. JAMAICAN SHORT-TAILED HUTIA (Capromys brachyurus).

2. SOLENODON (Solenodon cubanas). 3. CHINCHILLA (Chinchilla lanigera).

4. CARPINCHO or CAPYBARA (Hydrochoerus capybara).

5. VIZCACHA (Lagostomus trichodactylus).

6. PATAGONIAN CAVY (Dolichotis patachonica).

7. AGOUTI (Dasyprocta aguti).

food for both man and beast throughout the plains and unforested highlands of that continent. The largest species (Cavia patchonica), sometimes called "agouti," formerly spread throughout the plains of all Argentina, but now nearly extinct, resembles a hare standing upon terrier-like legs; it is a foot in height, and rusty red in general color. It digs deep burrows of its own and also occupies those of the viscacha. The restless cavy (Cavia porcellus), or "aperea," and Cutler's cavy (Cavia cutleri) are common in burrowing colonies in the La Plata valley and seem to be the ancestors of the guinea pig, though uniformly colored-the former grayish brown, the latter nearly black. Other species inhabit rocky places to a considerable altitude in Brazil and Bolivia. Consult Hudson, Naturalist in La Plata (London, 1892). See GUINEA PIG, and Plate of CAVIES, ETC.

CAWDOR, ką'der. A parish in county Nairn, Scotland, 10 miles east by north of Inverness, noted as the site of Cawdor Castle, in which Shakespeare places the murder of Duncan by Macbeth. Pop., 1901, 925; 1911, 847. During the rebellion of 1745 Lord Lovat was, according to tradition, for a time concealed in this castle. It is in an excellent state of preservation and presents a fine specimen of a true baronial stronghold of feudal times.

CAWDOR, THANE OF. A character in Shakespeare's Macbeth, who does not appear on the stage, but whose title is coveted by Macbeth and secured by his causing him to be executed for treason. The description of the character, especially as to his bearing at the hour of death, has led Shakespearean editors to find here a reference on the part of the author to the unfortunate Earl of Essex.

CAWEIN, kā-win', MADISON JULIUS (18651914). A prolific American poet, born and educated in Louisville, Ky. He is the author of, among other books, Blooms of the Berry (1887); The Triumph of Music (1888); Lyrics and Idyls (1890); Moods and Memories (1892); Poems of Nature and Love (1893); The Garden of Dreams (1896); Shapes and Shadows (1898); One Day and Another (1901); Kentucky Poems (1902); Complete Poetical Works (5 vols., 1907); New Poems (1909); The Shadow Garden, etc. (plays, 1910); Poems (1911); The Republic (1913). A selection of his poems has been made by him, with a brief introduction by W. D. Howells.

CAWNPORE, kan-pōr', or CAWNPUR, kan-poor', or KANPUR (Hind. Kanhpur, city of Krishna, from kanh, Skt. krsna, krishna, black+pur, Skt. pura, city). A city, capital of a district of the same name in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces, British India, on the right bank of the Ganges, 140 miles above Allahabad (Map: India, D 3). Cawnpore's modern importance is due to its commercial facilities and partly to military and political considerations. Since 1888 it has been brought into direct communication with Bombay, through the opening of the railway to Jhansi, and, at the junction of four lines, it is one of the chief railway stations in India. It has an extensive trade in grain and agricultural produce, and important manufactures of home commodities, such as cotton, leather, harness, woodenware, sugar, jute, iron products, chemicals, and cabinetwork. The town contains mission churches, schools, zenanas, a club, and good hotels. It owns municipal water works. It has

belonged to the English since 1801. The name of Cawnpore is associated with the events of the Sepoy Mutiny, one of the most terrible episodes of which was enacted here in July, 1857, the massacre of the European women and children by Nana Sahib. A prominent feature of Cawnpore is the memorial garden, covering the scene of the massacre. Marochetti's angel in white marble, under the Gothic monument over the well in which the dead and dying were cast, is a superb piece of sculpture. Though Cawnpore is only 379 feet above the sea, yet during winter considerable quantities of ice are made for preservation, by exposing water in shallow vessels at night. Pop., 1891, 163,800; 1901, 202,797; 1911, 175,557. Area of district, 12,384 square miles. Pop., 1891, 1,209,695; 1901, 1,258,868; 1911, 1,142,286. Consult Trevelyan, Cawnpore (London, 1865).

CAXAMARCA, kä'нå-märʼkå. See CAJA

MARCA.

CAXIAS, kä'shë-äsh'. A town in Brazil, situated in the State of Maranhão (Map: Brazil, J 5), on the river Itapicurú, about 200 miles southeast of Maranhão. It has a large trade in cattle, rice, and cotton, the river being navigable. It is the birthplace of the poet Luis Gonçalvez Dias. Pop., about 10,000.

CAXIAS, LUIZ ALVES DE LIMA E SILVA, DUKE OF (1803-80). A Brazilian general and statesman. He was born in Rio de Janeiro and entered the army at the age of 12. After a brilliant military experience, he was in 1850 appointed Minister of War and President of the Council, and afterward, as commander in chief of the Brazilian army, he conducted the war against Argentina, 1851-52. In this war he earned his title as Marquis. In 1867-69 he stood in the forefront of the war against Paraguay and captured its capital, Asunción. The state of his health after this laborious undertaking was such that he had to retire at once to Montevideo. The Emperor Dom Pedro I, as a reward for his services as Minister and general, created him Duke (the only title of this nature that was ever conferred upon a Brazilian) and presented him with the Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I. From 1875 to 1878 he was again President of the Council and Minister of War.

CAXIAS, MARQUES AND DUKE OF. See LIMA E SILVA, LUIZ ALVES DE.

CAX'TON, WILLIAM (c.1422-91). The first English printer. He was born in the Weald of Kent, and the particulars of his life are scanty. He was apprenticed in 1438 to Robert Large, a wealthy London mercer. At the death of the latter, in 1441, he went to Bruges, where from 1462 to 1470 he was governor of a chartered association of English adventurers trading in foreign lands. In 1471 Caxton entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, formerly an English princess; and, apparently towards the end of 1476, he set up his wooden printing press at the Sign of the Red Pale, in the Almonry, at Westminster. The art of printing he had acquired while abroad, either at Cologne or at Bruges, more likely at the latter place, from Colard Mansion, a well-known printer of that city; and in 1474 he put through the press (without much doubt Mansion's) the first book printed in English, the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, a translation of Raoul de Fèvre's work. The Game and Playe of the Chesse (probably 1475) was another of Caxton's carliest publications; but the Dictes and No

table Wise Sayings of the Philosophers (published Nov. 18, 1477) is the first book which can with certainty be maintained to have been printed in England. All the six fonts of type from which Caxton printed may be called black letter. Of the 99 known distinct productions of Caxton's press, no fewer than 38 survive in single copies or in fragments only. Caxton, who was an accomplished linguist and translated many of the works that issued from his press, was diligent in the exercise of his craft or in translation until within a few hours of his death, which occurred in 1491. By his numer

ous translations he helped fix the English speech and his many books prepared the way for the literary efflorescence of the Elizabethan era. In 1877 the great printer and his work were fittingly commemorated by a typographical exhibition in London. Consult: Knight, The Old Printer and Modern Press (London, 1861); Blades, Life and Typography of William Caxton (London, 1861-63), A Catalogue of Books Printed by or Ascribed to. William Caxton (London, 1865); Biography and Typography of Caxton (London, 1882). See, too, in Cambridge History of English Literature (Cambridge and New York, 1907-13), two excellent studies in vol. ii: Duff, "Introduction of Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press"; and Greenwood, "English Prose in the Fifteenth Century." The publications of the Caxton Club may be consulted to advantage.

CAXTON MEMORIAL BIBLE. See BIBLE, CURIOUS EDITIONS OF.

CAXTONS, THE. A novel by Bulwer Lytton, published in 1850 (3 vols. octavo). It was originally published in Blackwood's Magazine. The scene is chiefly laid in the midst of English country life, and the interest consists largely in the conversations which are held between the members of the Caxton family. Pisistratus Caxton, the ego of the story, also appears in My Novel and other later works of the author. CAXTON SOCIETY. An association formed

in London, in 1845, for the purpose of publishing

mediæval chronicles and other works. Of these it issued 16 vols. before its dissolution in 1854. CAYAMBÉ, kä'yȧm-bā', or CAYAMBÉURCU, -oor'koo. A volcanic peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, about 60 miles east-northeast of Quito and almost directly under the equator (Map: Ecuador, B 3). It has an altitude of about 19,200 feet and is covered with perpetual

snow.

CAYAPAS, kä'ya-päs. A tribe of the Barbacoan stock, residing on the coast, near Tola, in Ecuador. Von Buchwald has sought to identify them with the ancient Caras (q.v.). Consult Barrett, "The Cayapo Numeral System" in Putnam Anniv. Vol., pp. 395-404 (New York, 1909), and Beuchat and Rivet, Affinitiés des langues du sud de la Colombie et du nord de l'Equateur (Louvain, 1910).

CAYAPÓS, kä'yȧ-pos. A tribe of Tapuyan stock, situated north of the Rio Pardo. See TAPUYAN.

CAYCOS, kikos. See CAICOS. CAYENNE, kå-ěn' or kî-ěn'. The capital of French Guiana (Map: Guiana, G 3). It is situated on an island of the same name in the Atlantic, in lat. 4° 56′ N. and long. 52° 20′ W. It has a well-protected though shallow harbor, several fine churches, two hospitals, a bank, and an ecclesiastical college. Cayenne is the only outlet for the products of French Guiana and

CAYES, kâ. See AUX CAYES.

CAYEY, ki-ā'. A town of Porto Rico in the municipality of the same name, 37 miles south of San Juan (Map: Porto Rico, E 3). Situated at an altitude of 2300 feet, its cool climate and

sanitary conditions make it a popular local summer resort. There are schools, a church, a hospital, and old Spanish barracks. The chief industry is the manufacture of excellent cigars. The tobacco raised in the surrounding country is of the best cultivated on the island. Pop., 1899, 3763; 1910, 4498.

CAYLEY, kāli, ARTHUR (1821-95). An English mathematician. He was born at Richmond, Surrey, and was educated at King's ColIn early life he devoted much time to the study lege, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge.

and practice of law, being admitted to the bar in 1849, and some of his most brilliant mathematical discoveries were made during this period. Finally, in 1863, he left the legal profession to accept the Sadlerian professorship of mathematics at Cambridge. Cayley's most important contribution to mathematics is the theory of invariants. (See FORMS.) He also discovered an interesting higher curve, known as matrices, known as Cayley's Theorem. Many of the Cayleyan, and the principal proposition of his numerous memoirs were published in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal. His collected mathematical papers have been published in book form (13 vols. and supplement, Cambridge, 1889-98).

CAYLUS, kâ'lus', ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBIÈRES, COUNT DE (1692-1765). A French archæologist. He entered the army, served in the Spanish War of Succession, and after 1714 traveled in Italy, Greece, England, Germany, and the East, making collections of antiquities on which he published several learned works in French and Latin, the most important being the Recueil d'antiquités egyptiennes, étrusques, grecques, romaines, et gauloises (7 vols., Paris, 175267). He was a patron of art, and especially this field he wrote Nouveaux sujets de peinture of engraving, which he himself practiced. et de sculpture (1755) and Tableaux tirés de l'Iliade, de l'Odyssée et de l'Enéide (1757). He claimed to have rediscovered the method of en

In

caustic painting on wax mentioned by Pliny. He also wrote fiction, which has the kindly humor and attractive simplicity that characterized his own personality. His stories of Parisian life were collected together under the title Œuvres badines complètes (Amsterdam, 1787). Some of his stories were translated into English under the title "Oriental Tales" in Gueulette's Chinese Tales (1817). Consult: Rocheblave, Essai sur le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1889); Nisard's ed. of the Correspondance du comte de Caylus avec le père Paciaudi (1877); "Notice" of Uzanne in his Facéties (1879); and the preface of Jamet to the Nocrion: conte allobroge d'après l'édition originale de 1747, attributed to Caylus (Brussels, 1881).

CAYLUS, MARIE MARGUERITE LE VALOIS DE VILLETTE DE MURCAY, Marquise de (1673–1729). A French court lady and author, mother of the