thew Arnold' (1899); A History of Criticism' (Vol. I, 1900; Vol. II, 1902; Vol. III, 1904); "The Earlier Renaissance' (1901); 'Loci Critici (1903); Minor Caroline Poets' (Vol. I, 1905; Vol. II, 1906); ‘A History of English Prosody (Vol. I, 1906; Vol. II, 1908); The Later Nineteenth Century (1908); 'Historical Manual of English Prosody) (1910); History of English Criticism' (1911); History of English Prose Rhythm' (1912); The English Novel' (1913); First Book of English Literature) (1914); "The Peace of the Augustans' (1915).

SAIONJI, si'on-je, Kinmochi, MARQUIS, Japanese statesman: b. Kioto, 1849. He studied law in Paris as a young man and became acquainted with M. Clemenceau and the younger Radicals of the Third Republic. He was for a time Minister Plenipotentiary to Germany and Austria-Hungary. For many years closely associated with the late Prince Ito, he succeeded the latter as leader of his party, became president of the House of Peers and of the Privy Council, Minister of Education and twice Prime Minister of Japan, 1906-08 and 1911-12. He is one of the three oldest statesmen of Japan, and acted as head of the Japanese delegation to the Inter-Allied Peace Conference in Paris.

SAIS, să'is, Egypt, in hieroglyphics SA, a ruined city on the Rosetta or Canopic branch of the Nile, 67 miles northwest of Cairo; site now occupied by the village of Sa-el-Hagar, or Sa of the Stone, which contains no remains of temples or palaces. It was an ancient religious capital, whose famous temple of the goddess of Neith contained the mysterious veiled statue, the subject of Schiller's ballad and of Novalis' romance. In Sais the fête of burning lamps was celebrated, attracting many foreigners; and here was a tomb of Osiris. Sais was also a renowned educational centre frequented by the Greek sages. It gave its name to two Egyptian dynasties, founded by natives of the city. The Saïti kings ruled Egypt for 150 years, until the country was invaded by the Persians under Cambyses. Consult Lepsius, 'Briefe (p. 12); Wilkinson, 'Modern Egypt' (Vol. I, p. 183); Champollion, 'L Egypte (Vol. II, p. 219); also Herodotus (II, 29, 59, 169), and Strabo (XVII, 801).

SAIVAS, si'vąz, one of the three great divisions of the Hindu religion and meaning the worshippers of Siva. These are separated into sects which have varied in number at different periods in the religious history of Hindustan. The worship of Siva seems from a remote period more that of the learned and speculative classes than of the masses of the people. No poetic legends are recorded of this deity. Consult Wilson, Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (1862); Monier-Williams, 'Religious Thought and Life in India' (1883); Barth, 'Religions of India' (trans., 1882).

SAJOU, same as SAPAJOU (q.v.).

SAJOUS, sa-zhoo', Charles Euchariste de'Médicis, American physician and author: b. at sea off coast of France, 13 Dec. 1852. He was graduated from Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1878, and was clinical lecturer there 1884-90; professor and dean of the medical faculty of the Medico-Chirurgical College 1898, and professor and president of the faculty of Temple University Medical School after

1909. He received the degrees of LL.D. from Saint Joseph College 1909, and Sc.D. from Temple University in 1915; was made officer of the Academy of France in 1889; Knight of the Legion of Honor of France in 1892; Knight of the Order of Leopold of Belgium in 1890. Dr. Sajous is a Fellow of the American Philosophical Society and of the Academy of Natural Sciences and honorary and corresponding member of various foreign societies. He has edited Sajous's Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences (45 vols., 1888-96); Sajous' 'Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine) (8 vols., 1896 et seq.); is senior editor of the New York Medical Journal (1911-); was president of the American Medical Editors' Association 1903 and has written Diseases of the Nose and Throat (1884) and The Internal Secretions and the Principles of Medicine' (1903–16). The latter work was the first to show that the ductless glands sustained life in the tissue cells and that they played a leading part in most diseases, as defensive organs.

SAKAI, sä'ki, Japan, on the southwest of the island of Hondo, seven miles south of Osaka. Before the rise of the latter town it was the chief commercial port of Japan. Osaka now monopolizes the trade. Pop. 67,706.

SAKHALIN, sä-gä-lēn', or SAGHALIEN (properly KARAFTU), Siberia, a long mountainous island in the north Pacific, opposite the mouth of the Amur. Its area contains 24,560 square miles. The Strait of La Pêrouse separates it on the south from Yezo, Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk bounds its eastern and northern shores. The narrow and shallow Strait of Tartary separates it from the mainland. Mounts Bernijet and Ktöns-pal (2,000 to 5,000 feet) are the highest points of mountain ranges extending from north to south and interspersed with valleys of varying width. The principal rivers are the Tym and the Poronai, navigable for a short distance and teeming with fish, especially salmon. Petroleum and naphtha exist and coal is mined by Russian convicts. Agriculture does not succeed owing to the extremely rigorous climate. The island is covered with dense forests. Bears, tigers, sables and wild reindeer abound. Vegetation is Siberian in character. Sakhalin's history begins with the Stone Age, relics of which and of the Bronze Age are still extant, as seen in houses, bones and implements discovered. The island formerly belonged to the Chinese Empire, but early in the 19th century it was annexed by the Japanese who ceded it to Russia in 1875. By the Treaty of Portsmouth, N. H. (1905), following the Russo-Japanese War, the southern portion of the island was ceded to Japan by Russia, which retained the northern portion. The Japanese portion, now known as Karafuto, has an area of 13,253 square miles and a population of 49,463, and the Russian an area of 14,668 square miles and a population of 33,500. Besides the Russians and Japanese other inhabitants are Ainos, the aborigines, a primitive and peculiar race, Gilyaks and Oroks. The most important industry of the island is the herring fisheries, but large areas are highly adopted to agriculture and pasturage. There is a large forest area of larch and fir trees. The chief minerals are coal and alluvial gold.

SAKHARA, säk-kä'rä, Egypt, the necropolis of Memphis, about two miles distant from the ruins of the ancient city on the confines of the Libyan Desert. The chief interest lies in its antiquities, tombs and catacombs. Many pyramids rise among its ruins, one of which is remarkable for its doorway of inlaid tiles, bearing a royal name. Mariette discovered numberless sarcophagi, catacombs of the sacred Ibis, tombs of the god Apis, numerous grottoes, etc. What is believed to be the oldest mummy in the world, that of a son of Pepi I of the 5th dynasty, probably over 6,000 years old, was discovered here.

SAKI, a South American monkey of the genera Brachyurus, Pithecia and related groups. Its marked peculiarities are a non-prehensile tail, covered with very long hair, round head, short muzzle, ears not unlike those of humans and long-hair covering of entire body. See MONKEY.

SAKI, sä'ke, or SAKE, the native beer and common stimulating drink of the Japanese. It is made from rice and is drunk warm, producing a very speedy but transient intoxication.

SAKIEH, sǎk'ĭ-ě, SAKIA, or SAKEEYEH, a machine used in Egypt for raising water from the Nile for the purpose of irrigation. It is a modification of the Persian wheel and consists of a series of cogged wheels, turned by a buffalo or camel, each revolution of the wheel working up a series of earthen pitchers which empty themselves into a trough or pool.

SAKTA, sǎk'tą, the designation in the Hindu religion of a worshipper of the Sakti, the power or energy of the divine nature personified in a female form. If the tendencies of the worshipper are toward the adoration of Vishnu, then the personified Sakti is termed Lakshmi or Maha-Lakshmi; if it be toward that of Siva, the Sakti is dominated Parvati Bhavani or Durga. At least three-fourths of the Hindus of Bengal are of this sect, and of the remaining fourth, three are Vaishnavas to one Saiva. Wilson divides the Saktas into Dakshinis, Vamis, Kancheliyas and Kararis. Another classification is into the Dakschinacharis and the Vamacharis, followers of the Right Hand and of the Left Hand Ritual. Consult 'Religious Sects of the Hindus' (1862, p. 32).

SAKUNTALA, sa-kun'tą-lą. This masterpiece of Hindu literature is by Kalidâsa, the leading poet of India's second, or Sanscrit, period. It is a drama in seven acts and the underlying theme as well as many of its details are derived from the Mahâbhârata, the great national epic of the Hindu race. There are a number of versions of Sakuntâla (also spelled Çakuntâla or Shakuntâla) extant, the Bengalee one coming closest to the original. The drama has also been fashioned for the use of the European stage by Wolzogen, Donsdorf and others. The story of the play runs as follows: King Dushanta weds Sakuntala, the adopted daughter of the pious hermit Kama, but on her being brought to his court he fails to recognize her, owing to a curse having been pronounced against him. The despairing bride is translated to the realm of the genii, until finally the recovery of a ring, the pledge of mutual faith and love, leads to the reunion of the couple. The great charm of Sakuntala lies

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in the descriptive powers displayed by the poet, his keen appreciation of the beauties of nature and of the seasonal changes; his wealth of words is marvelous; his phraseology is often brilliant and picturesque, and the sentiments expressed, particularly as to the master passion, love, are delicate and psychologically true. The action, however, drags and is overburdened with side issues, and the diction suffers from its excessive artificiality and verbosity. Added

to these defects is a lack of the sense of proportion, such as the Greek genius possessed in so high a degree. Nevertheless, all authorities are agreed on the rare and dainty charm of Sakuntala, and Goethe bestowed unqualified praise upon it. The exact time when the poet Kalidasa lived and wrote this drama is shrouded in uncertainty. Indian tradition and authorities variously assign the time to the 3d century B.C. and up to the 6th century A.D. From strong internal evidence, particularly because of the extremely corrupted form of the Prakrit spoken in the play by the women and subsidiary characters, it is now concluded that the correct period must have been the 2d or 3d century A.D. Consult Schuyler, Montgomery, Editions and Translations of Çakuntala (in American Oriental Society Journal, Vol. XXII, Boston 1901); Henry, V., 'Les littératures de l'Inde (Paris 1904); Macdonell, A. A., History of Sanskrit Literature (London 1913).

WOLF VON SCHIERBRAND. SAL-AMMONIAC. See AMMONIA. SAL-TREE, a valuable timber-tree of India (Shorea robusia) second in importance only to the teak. It is found in large forests along the base of the Himalayas and again in another belt in eastern India. It belongs to the order Dipterocarpacea and yields a hard, heavy darkbrown, close-grained wood which is very durable and highly valued, particularly for guncarriages and railway ties. A whitish aromatic resin (saldammar) used to calk ships and also for incense (see DAMMAR) is obtained by tapping the trunk. The tusser silkworm feeds on the leaves. The sal forests are protected by the government of India.

SALA, să'lą, George Augustus Henry, English journalist and author: b. London, 24 Nov. 1828; d. Brighton, Sussex, 8 Dec. 1895. He received some instruction in drawing, but at 15 was obliged to provide for himself. He was a theatrical scene painter for a time, then turned to etching and engraving and had some success as an illustrator. In 1848 he turned to literature and from 1851 to 1856 contributed regularly to Household Words, edited by Charles Dickens. His first experience as "special correspondent" was in the letters he wrote for this journal from Russia after the Crimean War. In 1863-64 he was in the United States reporting the Civil War for the Daily Telegraph, and later published My Diary in America in the Midst of the War.' He followed Napoleon III to Algiers and published as a result, A Trip to Barbary by a Roundabout Route (1866). He established Temple Bar, a periodical which he edited from 1860 to 1866, and derived a large income from journalism, but much of his work is cheap and inflated, and no doubt was an important factor in the development of modern reprehensible newspaper methods. He wrote a critical biography

of William Hogarth (1860); and, in addition to works of travel already mentioned, 'America Revisited' (1882); 'A Journey due South' (1885); Right Round the World' (1888), works embodying his observations as a tourist and lecturer across the American continent to Australia and India.

SALAAM, sa-läm', or PEACE BE WITH YOU, the common salutation among Mohammedans. The answer is, "On you be peace and the mercy of God and his blessings." It is improper to address this answer to any but a believer.

SALAD PLANTS, various herbs whose tender, succulent foliage is eaten raw, with or without a dressing. In general, salads should be grown quickly and served as soon as possible after being gathered. They all delight in moist, rich soil with abundance of humus and nitrogenous plant food. Most of them may be sown as soon as the soil can be worked in spring, and some may be sown in autumn and allowed to remain until spring. Few do well in hot weather. Clean cultivation is essential with all of them, and since they are usually quickgrowing plants, they are favorites for growing between the rows of later maturing plants, such as cabbage, peas, beets, etc., which are themselves used by market-gardeners in the same way, a later crop being put upon the land as soon as they are gathered. That is a crop of salads, one of cabbage and one of perhaps celery may be obtained from the same area in

one season.

In America the most important salad is lettuce, which is extensively grown by truckers and market-gardeners, especially in the East from Florida to Massachusetts, the season starting in January in the South and advancing northward until June, the hot weather checking its production. In the autumn there is a less marked southerly migration. In the North large quantities are also grown under glass to supply local demands. Probably the endive ranks second as a market salad. Its consumption is, however, far less than that of lettuce, and it is less cultivated in the South than in the North, where the cooler climate is more suitable. As a home-salad mustard and cress are probably of next importance in America; in Europe they are grown in enormous quantities for the general market, but in America they are seldom offered for sale. Watercress is more important as a market salad and probably ranks next to endive. It is grown in streams or in damp ground, immense quantities being shipped to the Eastern markets from Virginia. Chicory and dandelion are both popular in the East, but probably more as pot-herbs than as salads. They usually require longer to attain edible size than lettuce and like endive are generally blanched. Chicory is occasionally used in the United States to make barbe de capucin and witloof, two salads very popular in Europe. The roots are dug in autumn, trimmed and for the former laid horizontally in pyramidal heaps with alternate layers of sand or soil in dark cellars and kept moist by occasional watering; for the second they are buried vertically and covered with some fermenting material for a few weeks. The former is the succulent leaf produced; the latter is a small head something like brussels sprouts. Either may be used as salad or as pot-herb.

SALADIN, săl'a-din, or properly SALAHED-DIN YUSSUF IBN-AYUD, sultan of Egypt and Syria: b. Tekrit, 1137; d. Damascus, 3 March 1193. He entered the service of Nureddin, emir of Syria; became vizier in Egypt about 1169; suppressed the Fatimites in 1171; was proclaimed sultan in 1174 and conquered Damascus and Syria. The great object of his policy was to expel the Christians from Palestine, and recover the city of Jerusalem (see CRUSADES). An atrocious massacre of Mohammedan pilgrims by Chatillon added to his ardor; and his vow of revenge against the perpetrator he was enabled to make good by his famous victory on the plain of Tiberias in 1187, where he captured Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, Chatillon (whom he cut down after the battle with his own scimitar) and many more. The fruits of this victory was the towns of Acre, Said and Beyrout; after which he laid siege to Jerusalem, which yielded (1187) in a capitulation, to the articles of which Saladin faithfully adhered. He then proceeded against Tyre, but failed in consequence of the destruction of his fleet by the Franks. The intelligence of the loss of Jerusalem reaching Europe produced the Crusade under the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (q.v.), whose death inspired Saladin with hopes soon damped by the arrival of the forces of Richard Coeur-de-Lion of England, and of Philip Augustus of France. The recovery of Acre by the two kings took place in 1191, upon which event Philip returned to France, and Richard, after twice defeating the sultan, took Cæsarea and Jaffa, and spread alarm as far as Jerusalem. At length a truce was concluded between Richard and Saladin (1192), by the terms of which the coast from Jaffa to Tyre was ceded to the Christians, while the rest of Palestine remained to the sultan. The departure of Richard freed Saladin from his most formidable foe. Though chargeable with unjustifiable means of acquiring power, Saladin employed it, when obtained, usefully for his subjects, whose burdens he lightened, while he benefited them by many useful works and establishments. Magnificent in his public undertakings, he was frugal in his personal expenses. He has been celebrated in Western literature for courage, moderation and justice. Scott introduces him into 'The Talisman,' disguised as the physician Adonbec and as Ilderim. Consult Gaston-Paris, 'La légende de Saladin' (Paris 1893); Reinaud, 'Notice sur la Vie de Saladin' (1874); Baha-ed-din, 'The Life of Saladin' (1897); Lane-Pool, Saladin, and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem' (1898); Yusuf ibn Rafi, The Life of Saladin' (tr. for Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, London 1899).

SALADO, sä-lä'thō, a river of Argentina, rising in the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras, and emptying into the Paraná after a course of 750 miles. It is salty, hence the name..

SALAL, an evergreen shrub (Gaultheria shallon), of the northwestern United States, from 2 to 10 feet high, with dark-green leaves and reddish twigs, bearing racemes of flowers, succeeded in August by dark-purple fruit, "salalberries," of the size of buck-shot, rough on the outside, very juicy and of a sub-acid flavor.

SALAMANCA, săl-a-măn'ka, Mexico, a town in the state of Guanajuato, situated in the south-western corner of the state, on the rail

road to Guadalajara. It lies in a wide, fertile but somewhat marshy plain. Among its seven churches one is a Gothic structure built on an ambitious plan. The chief industry of the town is the manufacture of porcelain. Pop. 13,497.

SALAMANCA, N. Y., village in Cattaraugus County, on the Allegheny River, and on the Erie, the Buffalo, Rochester and Western and the Pennsylvania railroads, 54 miles south of Buffalo. It was incorporated as a village in 1878. The lumber business is the chief industry, and there are several saw and planing mills; the village also has a tannery, wire-mattress factory, cigar factories, an embroidery factory, and railroad machine shops. It contains a national bank with a capital of $50,000, and resources of $1,248,948. It has both natural gas and electric-light plants, and a gravity system of waterworks. The town has a public high school, established in 1881, with a school library of over 3,000 volumes; and a Roman Catholic parish school. Pop. 9,276.

Its

SALAMANCA, sä-lä-män'kä, Spain, (1) capital of a province of the same name, in Old Castile, 120 miles northwest of Madrid, occupying three hills on the right bank of the river Tormes. The bridge across the river rests on 27 arches and is of Roman foundation. numerous and magnificent ecclesiastical and educational institutions have secured for Salamanca the title of "Little Rome." On the great plaza are the town-house, post office and stores. The Plaza Mayor is one of the finest squares in Europe, and is surrounded by an arcade supported by 90 Corinthian columns. The cathedral, begun in 1513, is a fine example of the florid Gothic, with an elaborate portal, lofty dome and graceful interior columns. There are also an old and massive cathedral of NormanFrench style (1102), numerous other churches, and as many convents; the College of Saint Bartholomew or Old College (1410), a classic building with an Ionic portico; College of Jesuits; that of the military order of Clatrava, College of the Archbishop (1522, by Fonseca), a colossal and sumptuous edifice with a fine façade and a chapel containing sculptures by Michelangelo; and Saint Domingo, the largest convent. The University of Salamanca is one of the most venerable and celebrated in Europe (13th century), whose students once numbered 14,000, coming from all parts of the globe. The cloisters of the two buildings comprised in the university are remarkably elegant, with graceful arches and elaborate moldings. There are numerous other schools, a theatre, bull arena, asylums, hospitals, handsome residences and palaces, etc. The most distinguished of the latter are the palaces of the Marquis of Valdecarzana and of the counts Garcigrande, Maldenadas, Espinosas and Monterey. There is an electric-light plant and manufactures of leather, blankets, hats and pottery. Salamantica (its ancient name) was an important city of the Vettones. In 222 B.C. it was taken by Hannibal and later under the Goths was a favored city. It was ravaged by the Moors and retaken in 1095. Columbus was lodged (1484-86) in the Dominican convent here. In 1543 Philip II was married to Mary of Portugal. In 1812 the Duke of Wellington gained a victory over the French under Marmont. Pop. 29,830.

(2) The province of Salamanca has an area VOL. 24-12

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of 4,829 square miles, the greater part of which is covered by forests of oak and chestnut, and an estimated population of 337,580. The principal rivers are the Tormes, Douro, Yeltes, Agueda and the Alagon. There are good harvests of cereals, hemp, oil and wine. Gold is found in the streams, and iron, lead, copper, zinc and coal in the hills, but the mines are only partially developed, partly due to the difficulties of transportation. The manufactures are unimportant and mainly for home consumption. The cloth of Bejar is especially good. Tanning of hides is a considerable industry. The province is traversed by a railway to Portugal. Besides the capital, the only other cities are Bejar and Ciudad Rodrigo.

SALAMANDER, the name applied generally to the species of tailed Amphibians (Urodela), but originally to the common European genus Salamandra. The smaller strictly aquatic species are known as newts (q.v.) or tritons; some of the larger species have received special names, as Kongo-snake, hellbender Siren and water-dog (qq.v.). The remaining salamanders are terrestrial or semi-aquatic and only rarely remain permanently in the water. One Californian species (Autodax lugubris) is partly arboreal. They are of small size and lizard-like form; but the popular notion that they are lizards is altogether erroneous as they are strictly batrachian in structure and lifehistory. The skin is smooth, glandular and scaleless, the skull possesses a well-developed parasphenoid bone and two occipital condyles, and all, except a few terrestrial species, pass through an aquatic gill-breathing stage. Some of the larger aquatic species advance but little beyond this condition; but in the great majority it is larval only and is succeeded by an abranchiate and sexually mature state. The axolotl (q.v.) of the genus Amblystoma, is a remarkable instance of a sexually mature larva. Many adult salamanders breathe by means of lungs, but a recent noteworthy discovery is the total absence of lungs in a large proportion of species, in which respiration takes place partly in the skin, but especially by means of a special vascular area of the pharynx. Most of the species deposit their large eggs in water, sometimes in a mass of jelly, as Amblystoma (q.v.), sometimes separately or in strings, as Spelerpes; but others, like Desmognathus fusca and Plethodon, seek drier places beneath stones and guard the eggs, and the terrestrial salamanders of Europe (Salamandra) are ovoviviparous. All are carnivorous and subsist upon insects, worms, etc. They are chiefly active at night, and during the day conceal themselves beneath stones and logs. During cold weather they pass into a more or less profound state of hibernation. Owing to the numerous cutaneous glands the skin is always moist and cold, from which arose the remarkable superstition that these animals, which, as a matter of fact require abundant moisture to sustain life, have the power not only of resisting, but of quenching, fire. Pliny records that he tried the experiment, and the salamander was burned to a powder; yet the fable continued to be credited till very recent times. From this old belief the name is applied to many articles, and by the ancients to a mythical creature, having fire-resisting qualities. The cutaneous secretion is poisonous to

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many of the lower animals. (For a classification of salamanders see URODELA; for development see EMBRYOLOGY). Consult Cope, 'Batrachia of North America' (Washington 1889); Gadow, 'Amphibia and Reptiles' (New York 1901); Phisalix-Picot, Mme., 'Recherches embryologiques, histologiques et physiologiques sur les glands à venin de la salamandre terrestre' (Paris 1900).

SALAMANDER, a kind of gopher (q.v.).

SALAMBA, the native Filipino name for a kind of fishing apparatus, used near Manila, fitted on a raft composed of several tiers of bamboos. It consists of rectangular net, two corners of which are attached to the upper extremities of two long bamboos, tied crosswise, their lower extremities being fastened to a bar on the raft, which acts as a hinge; a movable pole, arranged with a counterpoise as a sort of crane, supports the bamboos at the point of junction, and thus enables the fishermen to raise or depress the net at pleasure. The lower extremities of the net are guided by a cord, which, being drawn toward the raft at the same time that the long bamboos are elevated by the crane and counterpoise, only a small portion of the net remains in the water, and is easily cleared of its contents by means of a landing

net.

SALAMIS, săl'a-mis, ancient PITYOUSSA (Island of Pines), modern KOLURI, an island off the coast of Greece, in the Gulf of Ægina, about 10 miles east of Athens. It covers an area of about 30 square miles; is of irregular shape and rocky surface, and separated from the mainland by narrow, winding channels, giving access to the beautiful Bay of Eleusis, which has the appearance of a lake. Its soil is well adapted to the olive, and vineyards thrive. The other chief product is honey. The old city of Salamis stood on the south coast, and the famous naval battle of 480 B.C., between the Greeks and Persians, soon after the great battle of Thermopylæ, was fought in the narrow eastern strait. The new city of Salamis is on the northeast coast. The principal town is Koluri. Solon and Euripides were natives of the old city.

SALAMMBO, sä'läm-bo', by Gustave Flaubert, is an attempt to renew, in an age of science and according to the spirit of realism, the historical novel, which in its typical form as created by Walter Scott and practised by his numerous followers was an outgrowth of the romantic temper. It presents à reconstruction of the life of Carthage in the 3d century B.C., utilizing some of the events of the war of the Mercenaries against the Carthaginians as told by Polybius (Book I, last chapter). In preparation for his task he undertook a journey to the scene of his story, studied minutely the records and monuments of old Semitic civilization and sought patiently through familiar acquaintances with the present inhabitants of the region to discover in their life and character clues to the past. To those who impeached the accuracy of his picture he replied at length and in detail, citing authorities and warmly repelling all criticism that hinted either at ignorance or carelessness. But it is not for its erudition that the book has its fame, but for its art. Flaubert was first of all an artist, and if he

took great pains to ensure truth in the matter of his work, he took even greater pains to clothe the material in a perfect garment of words. For him, as for all great stylists, there was but one perfect word and one perfect phrase in a given case, and he knew no peace nor rest till he had found it. Salammbô is not a moving tale of adventure, but a series of pictures, rich, full, vivid and exquisitely wrought, in a texture of words that caresses the ear. They have both an intellectual and a sensuous charm. But they are often violent, painful, abhorrent, leaving us oppressed with a sense of the cruelty and mockery of life in Flaubert's pessmistic vision of it. Sainte-Beuve devoted a series of articles to Salammbô in Nouveaux lundis) (Vol. V). Flaubert wrote a rejoinder that is to be found in current editions of the novel and in his Correspondence, Vol. II. An English translation was made by M. French Sheldon (London 1886).

ARTHUR G. CANFIELD.

SALANDRA, sa-län'dra, Antonio, Italian statesman: b. Lucera, Apulia, 1853. For many years a professor of administrative law at the University of Rome, he entered Parliament as deputy for his native city and early became associated with Baron Sonnino (q.v.) in the "party of constitutional opposition" against the political degeneracy of "Giolittism." After holding various posts in several cabinets Signor Salandra became Premier in March 1914 on the resignation of Giolitti. During the first months of his administration he was engaged in a severe struggle against the Parliamentary majority controlled by Giolitti. On the outbreak of the European War, Salandra refused the assistance of Italy to Germany and Austria on the ground that the Triple Alliance stipulated co-operation only in case of an attack. The Foreign Minister in his Cabinet, San Giuliano, inclined more toward the Central Powers or at least benevolent neutrality. Nor was the Foreign Minister the only member of the Cabinet to oppose the Premier's policy. With the support of Signor Martini, the Colonial Minister (and a sincere friend of France), Salandra succeeded in overcoming the opposition of his colleagues. He had correctly gauged the temper of the country and the disinclination of the army and navy to fight on the side of Austria. His hands were strengthened by the somewhat opportune death of San Giuliano in October 1914, which enabled him to invite his former chief, Baron Sonnino, to accept the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. Both were resolved from the beginning to cast in their lot with the Allies in due course, though it was necessary first to place the army on an efficient footing and to break the links of economic dependence which bound Italy to the principal partner of the alliance. While Prince von Bülow and other agents of the Central Powers were exerting themselves to influence Italian opinion, the government prepared for the breach. At the instigation of von Bülow the ex-Premier Giolitti endeavored to stir up the king and Parliament to support the German cause, and to bring about the fall of Salandra. These machinations were an open secret and only served to heighten public indignation against the conspirators. Salandra decided on a bold stroke. He tendered his resignation to the king on 13 May