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of Scheglovitov to permit the leaders of the left group (revolutionaries) to make a declaration. In response to that measure the revolutionaries, together with a number of members of the centre, left the hall. The invitations sent by the leaders of the Progressive Bloc to the members of the cabinet for the discussion of measures for reform were ignored. Meanwhile hunger stirred the discontent of the people and soldiers, especially in view of the fact that food-supplies were found stored away by the police. In March riots began in Petrograd. The government responded by calling out troops to patrol the streets and proclaiming martial law. The demonstrations of all classes of people were becoming numerous when almost all the newspapers stopped their work and the organized laborers of Petrograd elected a council for the direction of general strikes and the great revolutionary movement that was pending. The Progessive Bloc, then still in session, framed a resolution to break with the government. The tsar issued an edict ordering its dissolution on 11 March. The Duma ignored the order. The government tried to restore its authority by ordering the police to use their weapons freely against the people. Disguised as soldiers of the Voluinski regiment they fired, killing and wounding about 200 of the crowd. In the afternoon the Voluinski regiment joined the revolutionaries. Other regiments, one after another, followed their example. The president of the Duma, Michail Rodzianko, sent to the tsar warnings at repeated intervals. The tsar, however, ignored the warnings of the Duma as well as those of his generals. Aided by the army the revolutionists made gigantic steps. The main arsenal fell into their hands; police stations were demolished. The famous prisons, the Peter and Paul fortress and Schluesselburg, were attacked in a rapid succession. Joined by released prisoners, some of whom were leaders of the Petrograd uprising of 1905, the rebels proceeded to the secret service department and set on fire its archives. In the afternoon of the same day, 12 March, Taurida Palace, the meeting place of the Duma, was surrounded by the revolutionary forces. The telephone and telegraphic apparatus were captured. Kerensky, leader of the Social-Democrats, and Miliukov, leader of the Constitutional-Democrats, addressed the regiments and their speeches were cheered by the revolutionists. Thus the people and the Duma joined hands to finish the work of the Revolution, while some of the reactionary officials either resigned, as did Premier Galitznin, or disappeared altogether. The members of the Duma appointed a council of 12 members representing all parties. This council, called the Duma Committee of Safety, represented the Duma and the Labor party and, after a night's session, issued a proclamation calling the people to order and effecting a complete overthrow of the old régime. On 13 March, various military organizations, headed by their officers, appeared before the Duma committee to express their submission, and on that same day the regiments defending the Admiralty surrendered. On 14 March the emperor's body guard joined the revolutionists and the Winter Palace was occupied by the rebels. By a mutual consent of

the two representative bodies (Duma Committee of Safety and the Council of Workers and Military Deputies) a provisional government was formed which decided to ask the emperor to abdicate and proclaim Grand Duke Michael regent. The Committee of Safety in Petrograd then informed all other cities that the old government had been deposed and a new and temporary government formed by the Duma. The provisional government was at once recognized by all the cities of the empire. Moscow and Charkov were the first to do so. Also foreign governments, through their diplomatic representatives, recognized the new order of things and announced their readiness to enter upon negotiations with the provisional government. Meanwhile the ex-Premier, Sturmer, General Kurlov, General Komissarev and many other high officials were arrested. The chief of the Black Hundreds (i.e., the originators of massacres), Dr. Dubrovin and the metropolitan Pitrim, member of the "dark forces," met with the same fate. The Duma committee appointed a special commission to take charge of the railroads, telegraphs and telephones and of various other governmental departments. Encounters between the revolutionists and the police still continued and hundreds of the police officials were arrested. The revolutionists had the unanimous support of the commanders-in-chief and of the Petrograd clergymen and officers, who issued appeals to the people and armies, respectively, to continue their revolutionary work. On 15 March the tsar abdicated in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Michael, who, in his turn, abdicated the next day, thus ending the rule of the Romanov dynasty. As the people objected to the deposed tsar's liberty, he was placed, together with his family, under arrest in the Tzarskoe Selo where the guards had also revolted. The imperial family had to part with a great number of their servants and were deprived of all telephone and telegraphic connections with Petrograd. The colossal income of the tsar's estates now went to the State Treasury. The first step of the provisional government was the attempt to restore order and Professor Yurevich was appointed chief of police. Investigations in the former activities of the bureaucrats were started energetically as a preliminary step in their trials. Many chiefs of the fallen régime were arrested. Among these there were Baron Frederick, General Vozeykov and General Zrozovski of Moscow. The provisional government marked the beginning of its administration by ordering full amnesty to all political prisoners and offenders, the complete emancipation of the Jews, the abrogation of the Pale of Settlement, the abolition of death penalty, the abolition of the police and the formation of a militia. Soldiers were granted freedom of speech and uncensored communication with their homes. Immediately after the Revolution labor councils were formed after the model of the Petrograd council. The coup d'état of the Maximalists (Bolsheviki) in November 1917 resulted in the setting up of a Communist state and great economic demoralization. In 1921 certain modifications were made in the system and trade relations were resumed with several nations_including England. See WAR, EUROPEAN; RUSSIA AND THE WAR.

Bibliography.- Arnaud, C. A. de, 'The

RUSSIA - RUSSIAN HISTORY (2)

New Era in Russia' (Washington 1900); Baddeley, J. F., "The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus) (New York 1908); Bain, R. N., "The Pupils of Peter the Great from 1697 to 1740) (London 1897), 'Slavonic Europe: a Political History of Poland and Russia from 1447 to 1796 (Cambridge, England, 1908), The Daughter of Peter the Great' (London 1899) and The First Romanoffs' (New York 1905); Banks, J., 'A New History of the Life and Reign of the Czar Peter the Great' (Windsor, Vt., 1811); Baring, M., The Russian People' (London 1911) and The Mainsprings of Russia (New York 1914); Beazley, Forbes and Birkett, 'From the Varangians to the Bolsheviks' (Oxford 1918); Bechhofer, C. E., (Russia at the Cross-Roads' (London 1916); Bérard, V., 'The Russian Empire and Czarism' (London 1905); Beveridge, A. J., The Russian Advance) (New York 1903); Bond, Sir E. A., 'Russia at the Close of the 16th Century) (London 1856); Bubnoff, I. B., (The Co-operative Movement in Russia, Its History, etc. (New York 1917); Buel, J. W., A Nemesis of Government (Philadelphia 1899); Child, R. W., 'Potential Russia) (New York 1916); Curtin, J., The Mongols in Russia' (New York 1908); Curzon, G. N. (Earl), 'The Russians in Central Asia in 1889 and the Anglo-Russian Question' (London 1889) and Problems of the Far East' (ib.); Dobson, G., 'Russia' (London 1913); Drage, G., 'Russian Affairs (London 1904); Fanning, Clara E., Selected Articles on Russia, History, Description and Politics' (New York 1918); Geddie, J., "The Russian Empire: Historical and Descriptive' (ib. 1882); Hecker, J. F., Russian Sociology (New York 1915); Helps, Sir A., Ivan de Biron; or, The Russian Court in the Middle of last Century' (Boston 1874); Hildt, J. C., 'Early Diplomatic Negotiations of the United States with Russia' (Baltimore 1906); Hodgetts, E. A. B., "The Russian Court in the 19th Century) (London 1908) and 'The Life of Catherine the Great' (ib. 1914); Howe, Mrs. Sonia, A Thousand Years of Russian History) (London and New York 1916); Joyneville, C., Life and Times of Alexander I (London 1875); Kleinschmidt, A., 'Drei Jahrhunderte russischer Geschichte, 1598-1898) (Leipzig 1898); Kluchevsky, V. O., A History of Russia (3 vols., New York 1911-13); Kornilov, A., Modern Russian History from the Age of Catherine the Great to the Present) (2 vols., ib. 1916-17); Kovalevsky, M., Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia) (London 1891) and Institutions Politiques de la Russie' (Paris 1903); Kovalewsky, W. de, La Russie à la Fin du XIXe Siècle (ib. 1900); Krausse, A. S., 'Russia in Asia 1558–1899) (New York 1900); Lavisse, E., Rambaud, A., and others, on Russia in 'Histoire Générale) (Vols. X, XI, Paris 189899); Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Empire des Tsars et les Russes (3 vols., Paris 1882; English trans., New York 1902-05); id., 'La Rénovation de l'Asie (Paris 1900); Lethbridge, A., 'The New Russia) (New York 1915); Lowe, C., Alexander III of Russia' (London 1895); Mahan, A. T., The Problem of Asia' (New York 1900); Martens, F. de, 'Recueil des traités conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères (Petrograd 1878-); Mavor, Prof. J., An Economic History of Russia' (New York 1914); Milyukov, P., 'Etude sur l'histoire

15

de la Civilisation russe) (Paris 1901); Molloy, J. F., The Russian Court in the 18th Century) (London 1905); Morgan, E. D. (ed.), 'Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen (London 1886); Munro, H. H., 'The Rise of the Russian Empire' (London 1900); Noble, E., 'Russia and the Russians) (New York 1900); Norman, H., All the Russians' (ib. 1902); Notovitch, N., 'La Russie et l'Alliance Anglaise Etude historique et politique) (Paris 1906); Pobyedonostsev, K. P., Reflections of a Russian Statesman' (London 1898); Popowski, J., The Rival Powers in Central Asia, or, The Struggle between England and Russia in the East' (ib. 1893); Ralston, W. R. S., 'Early Russian History) (ib. 1874); Rambaud, A., 'History of Russia from the Earliest Time to 1881 (2 vols., Boston 1882); Sarolea, C., 'Europe's Debt to Russia' (London 1915) and "Great Russia: Her Achievements and Promise' (New York 1916); Skrine, F. H., "The Expansion of Russia 1815-1900' (London 1915); Stepniak, E., 'King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia' (2 vols., London 1896) and 'At the Dawn of a New Reign: Modern Russia' (ib. 1906); Thompson, H. M., 'Russian Politics' (London 1896); Times (London), 'The Book of Russia' (1916); ib., A Russian Parliament under Catherine II' (14 May 1906); Urusov, S. D., 'Memoirs of a Russian Governor' (New York 1908); Vinogradoff, Sir P., 'Self-Government in Russia' (London 1916); Waliszewski, K., Ivan the Terrible' (Philadelphia 1904); id., 'Paul the First of Russia, the Son of Catherine the Great' (London 1913) and Peter the Great' (ib. 1897); Wallace, Sir D. M., 'Russia' (2 vols., new ed., London 1912); Weale, B. L. P. (Simpson, B. L.), The Coming_Struggle_in Eastern Asia' (ib. 1908); Wiener, Leo, An Interpretation of the Russian People' (New York 1915); Winter, N., The Russian Empire of To-day and Yesterday) (London 1914); Wolkonsky, Prince S., Pictures of Russian History and Russian Literature) (New York 1898).

REVOLUTION OF 1905.- Durland, K., "The Red Reign' (New York 1907); Linden, A., 'Die Juden Pogromen (2 vols., Berlin 1910); Milyukoff, P., Russia and its Crisis' (Chicago 1906); Perris, G. H., 'Russia in Revolution' (London 1905); Semenoff, E., 'Une Page-de la Contre-Révolution russe Les Pogroms' (Paris 1906); Van Bergen, R., The Story of Russia' (New York 1905); Villari, L., 'Russia under the Great Shadow (New York 1905); Zilliacus, K., "The Russian Revolutionary Movement' (London 1905).

REVOLUTION OF 1917.- Anet, C., "Through the Russian Revolution' (London 1918); Beatty, Bessie, 'The Red Heart of Russia' (New York 1918); Brown, A. J., 'Russia in Transformation' (ib. 1917); Bryan, Louise, 'Six Red Months in Russia) (ib. 1918); Buisson, F., Les Bolchéviki, 1917-19) (Paris 1919); Dillon, E. J., The Eclipse of Russia' (New York 1918); Dorr, Mrs. Rheta, 'Inside the Russian Revolution' (ib. 1917); Houghteling, J. L., 'Diary of the Russian Revolution' (ib. 1918); Keeling, H. V., Bolshevism' (London 1919); Kerensky, A. F., The Prelude to Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rebellion' (ib. 1918); 'Lenine and Trotzky German Agents' (Cur

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rent History, New York, November 1918); Levine, I. Don, 'The Russian Revolution' (ib. 1917); Long. R. C., Russian Revolution Aspects (ib. 1919); McCabe, J., Romance of the Romanoffs' (ib. 1917); Marcosson, I. F., 'The Rebirth of Russia (New York 1917); Olgin, M. J., The Soul of the Russian Revolution' (ib. 1917); Petrunkevitch, Harper and Golder, The Russian Revolution' (ib.); Poole, E., 'The Dark People: Russia's Crisis' (ib. 1918) and The Village: Russian Impressions' (ib. 1919); Price, M. P., 'War and Revolution in Asiatic Russia' (London 1918); Reed, J., Ten Days that Shook the World' (New York 1919); Rivet, C., The Last of the Romanoffs' (ib. 1918); Ross, E. A., 'Russia in Upheaval' (ib. 1918); Russell, C. E., 'Unchained Russia' (ib. 1918); Sack, A. J., The Birth of the Russian Democracy (ib. 1918); Spargo, J., Bolshevism' (ib. 1919); Trotzky, Leon, The Bolsheviki and World Peace (New York World, 13 Jan. 1918); id., 'History of the Russian Revolution to Brest-Litovsk? (London 1917); id., 'Our Revolution, etc.' (New York 1918); Victoroff-Toporoff, V. (ed.), 'La Première Année de la Révolution Russe' (Bern 1918); Walpole, H., 'Petrograd on the Eve of Revolution (London 1919); Weiss, J., 'Les Bolchéviks au Purvoir) (Lausanne 1918); Wilton, R., 'Russia's Agony (New York 1918); The Thing Called Bolshevism' (World's Work, New York, January 1919). See MAXIMALISTS. WOISLAV M. PETROVITCH,

Chief of Slavonic Division, New York Public Library.

3. RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. In historical times the Slavic languages appear already subdivided into three groups, the southern, the western and the eastern. The southern comprises the Serbo-Croatians and Slovenians, known as Jugo-Slavs, and the Bulgarians; the western consists of the Czechs, Slovaks, SerboLusatians and Poles; the eastern embodies all the Russian dialects. It is doubtful whether the present subdivision of the Russian dialects into Little, White and Great Russian goes back beyond the 11th century, but since then these have formed distinct groups, and the present growth of nationalism in the Ukraine bids fair to bring about a strong literary development of Little Russian, while White Russian may politically and socially disappear in the newly-created Lithuanian, Polish and Little Russian nationalities. Kiev was originally Great Russian, but early in the Middle Ages Little Russians kept moving up from Galicia until now they can claim linguistically the territory north as far as the government of Syedlets and parts of Grodno and Minsk. They hold the governments of Poltava, Kharkov, Voronezh and extend into Chernigov, Kiev, Volhynia, that is, they are found in the territory provisionally denominated as the Ukraine. The White Russian, an intermediary between Great Russian and Polish, is found in the governments of Grodno, Vilno, Vitebsk, Pskov, Mogilev, Minsk. Although used in historical documents in the Middle Ages it never developed a literature of its own.

The Great Russian, which we shall now call Russian, is divided into two large groups, by a line running from Lake Peipus to Nizhni-Novgorod and thence directly east. The chief characteristic of the southern group is the pro

nunciation of unaccented o as a, which is not the case in the north. The chief representative of the southern group is the local Moscow speech, which is the basis for the official language, and, both on account of its political importance and the softness of its consonantal enunciation, bears the same relation to the Russian dialects that the Sienese or Florentine bears to the Italian dialects. But the Muscovite pronunciation is not rigorously followed outside the southern group. In the north the unaccented o remains o, and throughout the vast territory which belongs to Russia, without being Great Russian, the school pronunciation is normalized and more regular than in the soft utterance of Moscow, thus bearing the same relation to the Muscovite that the English of American schools bears to the Bostonian or New England pronunciation.

The language of literature and the Church up to the 18th century was not Russian, but Church Slavic, which is of southern Bulgarian origin, due to the dissemination of Christianity from Bulgaria. But from the very beginning the local Russian speech of Kiev intruded into the vocabulary and pronunciation of the Church and modified it, while the Bulgarian of the Church language similarly affected the spoken language. Thus the Church Slavic of Russia in time assumed a special aspect in the Church books of the Russian redaction, later to reenter Serbia and Bulgaria and reintroduce a considerable Russian element into the southern languages.

The Bulgarian introduced a very large number of phonetic and morphological peculiarities into the spoken language, especially in words connected with the intellectual and religious life. The chronicles and judicial documents employed from the start a language which was essentially Great Russian, but with an admixture of Church Slavic words. Though originally an Indo-European language, Russian has a considerable non-Indo-European vocabulary. The Finnish tribes of the north and the Tatar nations of the south, even before the Tatar invasion, have enriched the vocabulary, and there are still other unaccounted-for elements in the language, which of late have been ascribed to a prehistoric residence in the Caucasus. Beginning with the 14th century Moscow takes the place of Kiev as an intellectual centre, and here the local speech, which arose from a union of southern and northern dialects, penetrates into the written language, and the local literary varieties of Novgorod, Tver and Ryazan soon pale before the administrative language of Moscow. Since then the Russian has received new linguistic additions. The most refined literary Polish furnished a considerable number of words, dealing with manners, and the introduction of the technical arts from the West opened the door to Dutch and German words, which entered in alarming quantity with Peter the Great. Later, the adoption of Western culture has given an enormous number of words from the German, the Romance languages and the Latin for scientific purposes. If one considers that possibly one-third of the Church Slavic represented Greek borrowings, and that these were also bequeathed to the Russian, one can see that the Russian, like most literary languages, is very composite in its

RUSSIA RUSSIAN LANGUAGE (3)

nature. From the 16th century on the spoken language is more and more used as a means of written expression, but up to the 18th century the Church Slavic maintained itself successfully in the Church. With the growth of culture, the spoken Muscovite and the Church Slavic blend into one, and in the second half of the 18th century the literary norm is established, to be perfected by Karamzin and Pushkin into a harmonious tongue, capable of all uses to which a literary language is put.

The Russian language is, in spite of the prevailing opinion, not a difficult language, although very rich in grammatical forms and forbidding to the beginner on account of its strange alphabet. The alphabet is identical with the Church Slavic, except that Peter the Great in 1708 simplified its letters by bringing them in harmony with the simpler Latin letters of the West. This current form of the alphabet is known as the civil alphabet, as opposed to the Church Slavic Kirilitsa. The alphabet consists of 37 letters, but two of them are rarely used, and the Bolshevik Minister of Education has ordered the abandonment of the useless hard sign and the superfluous ye, which is phonetically identical with e and of y, which is identical with i. This reform has long been mooted and, should it become universal, Russian would be the best phonetic language of Europe. The additional letters to the Latin alphabet are not a hindrance, but an advantage, because in Polish and Czech, where the Latin alphabet is used, the diacritical marks used to represent additional sounds are not conducive to easy and rapid writing. The accent is variable in Russian and extremely difficult if studied in itself. Therefore, all the better grammars and readers, even those for the Russian schools, where non-Russians may happen to be, are accented throughout. It can be acquired only by long practice, when analogy, which guides the native in his speech, automatically and with fair safety furnishes a clue to the accent of any new form one may meet. The pronunciation of Russian is not difficult, but the chief difficulty to the Westerner lies in his tendency to harden soft combinations. Before e and i and the vowels beginning with y, such as ya, ye, yo, all the consonants, but more especially the dentals, become distinctly palatalized, that is, these are pronounced not with the tip of the tongue pressing against the roof of the teeth, but by touching the palate with the tongue higher up. Another difficulty is the hard before a, o and u, which is not pronounced, as in English, between the tip of the tongue and the root of the teeth, but, while the tip of the tongue rests against the teeth, by vibrating once the uvula and producing a guttural, akin to a gutteral r. The other sounds offer no especial difficulty. The phonetic changes within the conjugation of the verb or in derivations, which appear so puzzling to one beginning the study of Russian, is in reality produced by an attempt to remain phonetic, for in English or French practically the same phenomenon may be observed, only while the Russian writes noshu for nosiu, the English writes mission and pronounces mishon. A clear understanding of the law of phonetic change removes this difficulty far more thoroughly than the difficulty of the English pronunciation can be overcome by a foreigner.

VOL. 24 2

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The Russian noun has three genders and two numbers, like the Latin, and seven cases. Each gender is declined differently, but their plurals practically are identical, except for the genitive case, which causes some difficulty. The neuter singular does not materially differ from the masculine, but the feminine has totally different forms. What complicates the declension is the fact that words with a soft or palatalized ending have to be declined soft throughout, and there are very many variations in the genitive and prepositional cases, due chiefly to a confusion of the historic o and u declensions. Such forms can be acquired only through long practice. The dual of the Church Slavic has almost entirely disappeared, leaving but feeble traces in words naturally dual, such as that for "eye, ear." The most curious reminiscence of it is found after the numerals "two, three, four," when the noun stands in the genitive singular, because that form frequently corresponded to the nominative dual. From "five" on the genitive plural is used by analogy. The adjectival declension is interesting from the fact that by the side of an apocopated form of it, which almost entirely coincides with that of the noun and which is used only in the predicate, there is a fuller declension, formed originally from the nominal endings plus the corresponding endings of the personal pronoun of the third person, which was used as an article. Thus we have the curious phenomenon of a post-positive article, which is still in full use in Bulgarian, in existence in all the unrelated languages of the East, in the Scandinavian of Germanic origin, in all the Slavic languages, in Rumanian of Latin origin and in Albanian. The Russian is not fond of an attributive genitive and generally turns such into a corresponding adjective, hence it is far richer in adjectival forms than the languages of the West. The vast majority of family names ending in ov, in, ovich, ski, etc., are just such adjectives, hence the absence of titular von or de, or anything that corresponds to it, from the Russian vocabulary. The adjectives practically lack the superlative, which is supplied by the comparative or various intensive adjectives or particles. The chief difficulty in the formation of the comparative is the doubling of forms caused by drawing the apocopated comparative chiefly from the native Russian, and the full attributive comparative chiefly from the corresponding Church Slavic formation. The numerals are bothersome because every one of them is declined, and in a combination such as "one thousand two hundred and forty five men" six different declensional forms will occur. While the nominal declension is complex, the syntactical application of it is rather simple, because the abundance of cases, each one with a distinct function, obviates the difficulty which is ever present in a language without grammatical endings, such as French, where only the closest of attention makes one expert in the use of de and à. Thus Russian, though full of perplexing difficulties, has the unusual compensation of a language with a minimum of syntactical rules.

In the verb the relation between syntax and grammatical forms is reversed. Of the whole intricate structure of the Church Slavic, with its aorist and multiplicity of past tenses, very little is left. Only one, unconjugated past is

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RUSSIA RUSSIAN LANGUAGE (3)

left. The future is a compound of I shall and the infinitive, but in a large class of verbs the present does duty for the future. Thus there is only one tense, the present, that really can cause difficulty, on account of a number of consonant changes that are liable to happen. There are only two conjugations, and a simple rule accounts for the great majority of the socalled second conjugation, leaving everything else to the first. There is a wealth of simple participial forms, which are also found apocopated and are called gerunds. These make it possible to express a large number of adverbial phrases in a very simple and precise way. But, to atone for the absence of a complicated conjugational system, there is the matter of aspects which to the beginner is likely to prove a stumbling block, but which supplies the language with a mass of delicate shades of expression which the Western languages can seldom render correctly. A verb expresses either the action, when it is of the imperfective aspect, or the result of an action, when it is of the perfective aspect. Most verbs have the two, and many are capable of even more delicate distinctions. An imperfective aspect may refer to an indefinite action or to an action with a definite aim; a perfective aspect may not only refer to the result of the action, but also to its suddenness, when it becomes self-active. In addition, there are iterative verbs, which represent frequently repeated action. Many verbs have all or nearly all of these forms, which differ from each other by suffixes and prefixes, added in a definite way. The perfective has only two tenses, the past and the future; the iterative only one, the past, and the imperfectives, all three. Only long training makes one perfect in the use of these, but in reading the matter is not of such pressing importance.

The Russian avoids the passive voice and has an exceedingly simple way of expressing the subjunctive, which is made up from the unconjugated past tense by the addition of a particle, but makes up these deficiencies not only by the very comprehensive aspects, but also by the use of a reflexive which does not differ from the rest of the verbs, except for the addition of the unchanged reflexive ending. Besides, a particular shade of involuntary action, such as to express the idea I want to eat, as the result of hunger, and not as a wilful act, is expressed by an impersonal construction, so that the ambiguity of the English is always avoided.

The sentence structure of Russian is simplicity itself. Though originally the Russian, through the Church Slavic, based its sentence on the periodic_Greek speech, Karamzin, who had studied in England, popularized the simple co-ordinate arrangement of clauses, as against the intricate and clumsy German subordinate periodic structure, and this simple style has remained the norm. The language is simple and direct. Add to this the facts that the order of words is quite immaterial, since it is guided exclusively by emphasis, that the indirect discourse is practically unknown and that a small basic number of words furnishes an inexhaustible number of derivatives of every imaginable shade of meaning, and it will become clear that the Russian language cannot possibly be so difficult as it is generally represented to be. The trouble is that all the troublesome points

are met with at the very start, but, while the difficulties of German, for example, keep increasing, the difficulties of Russian stop very soon. Thus in a given period, after the rudiments have been mastered, considerably faster progress can be made in Russian than in German.

As the Russian vowels are all open, except in specially favored positions, and the consonants are not harsh, the Russian language is particularly adapted to singing, even beyond Italian For literary purposes it is especially good, since the most difficult ideas of any literary language can be rendered with remarkable fidelity; hence Russian literature abounds in fine translations, whether of Homer, Shakespeare, Goethe, Beranger or of any other foreign poet. The innate beauty of Russian has struck not only foreigners, but has long been known to the Russians, for already Lomonosov said of it, "One may find in it the magnificence of the Spanish, the vivacity of the French, the force of the German, the tenderness of the Italian, and, besides, the wealth and the expressive brevity of the Greek and the Latin," while Turgenev said of it that "it is unthinkable that such a language should not be given to a great nation."

Bibliography.— General: Jarintzov, N., "The Russians and Their Language; with an introduction discussing the problems of pronunciation and transliteration and preface by Nevill Forbes' (New York 1916); Leger, L., and Bardonnant, G., Les racines de la langue russe (Paris 1894); Mazon, A., Morphologie des aspects du verbe russé' (Paris 1908).

GRAMMARS: Berneker, E., "Russische Grammatik (Leipzig 1897); Boltz, A., Lehrgang der russischen Sprache) (Berlin 1880-84); Bondar, D., 'Simplified Russian Method, Conversational and Commercial' (London 1917); Dmitriewicz, N., Russishe Grammatik; enthält nebst ausführlichen, übersichtlich dargestellten Sprachregeln, einschliesslich der Akzentlehre, zahlreiche Übungsaufgaben und Lesestücke) (Lemberg 1891); Forbes, N., 'First Russian Book,' (Second Russian Book,' 'Russian Grammar) (Oxford 1917); Magnus, L. A., Concise Grammar of the Russian Language) (New York 1916); Manasevitch, B., Die Kunst die russische Sprache durch Selbstunterricht schnell zu erlernen (Vienna 1897); Sieff, M., Volper's Russian Accidence in Tables (New York 1917). ACCENTS: Boyer, P., 'De l'accentuation du verbe russe (in 'Ecole des langues orientales vivantes (1895); Pérot, G., L'accent tonique dans la langue russe' (Lille 1900); Sharlovski, I., 'Russian Accent,' in Russian (Vornezh 1883-89); id., 'Russian Prosody,' in Russian (Odessa 1890). READERS AND TEXTS: Forbes, N., Russian Readers (3 vols., New York 1917); Bondar, D., 'Russian Readers' (London 1915); Seiff, M., 'Manual of Russian Commercial Correspondence (New York 1917); Solomonoff, J., Russian Composition' (New York 1917); The First Russian Reader) (New York 1916); Tolstoy's (Sevastapol' (New York 1916); Chamaelon, A. P., Tchekhov) (New York 1916); 'Russian Reading Made Easy, consisting of anecdotes, dialogues, etc., with interlinear English translation and imitated pronunciation, and a modern Russian play, The Three Sisters,' by Tchekhoff, in clear accented type, with literal

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