translation and explanatory notes (London 1916); (accented) Berneker, E., Russisches Lesebuch' (Leipzig 1897). DICTIONARIES: (All Russian). 'Dictionary of the Russian Language (Imperial Academy of Sciences, Petrograd 1891; only two volumes have so far appeared of this new edition); (all Russian) Dal, V. I., 'Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language) (3d ed., 4 vols., Petrograd 1903-09); (with English) Aleksandrov, A., 'Complete Anglo-Russian Dictionary' (Petrograd 1879); Complete Russian-English Dictionary (ib. 1904); (with English) Freese, J. H., 'New Pocket Dictionary of the English and Russian Languages' (New York 1916); (with English) Luboff, S. J., Handy Russian-English and English-Russian Dictionary and Self-Instruction' (Philadelphia 1916); (with German) Pavlovski, I. Y., Russischdeutsches Wörterbuch) (2d ed., Riga 1879).

LEO WIENER, Professor of Slavic Languages and Literature, Harvard University.

SO

4. RUSSIAN LITERATURE. Nothing whatsoever is known of any literary activity in Russia previous to the introduction of Christianity in the 10th century, and even for a long period afterward it found its expression, not in Russian, but in the language of the Church, that of the proto-apostles Cyril and Methodius, which in all likelihood was the Bulgarian, as spoken in the neighborhood of Saloniki. This Old Church Slavic was close to the Russian dialects that it could be understood with little exertion by the clergy and those rare intellectuals who found any need to give expression to their thoughts. Up to the 12th century there is only a slim collection of sermons and exhortations, but at the end of this period we have the noteworthy Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh to his Children,' which compares favorably with similar spiritual testaments of the period, such as that of Saint Stephen of Hungary. A little later we get the admirable account of the Holy Land by Abbot Daniel the Palmer, which even now elicits praise for its realistic account of the time of the first crusades. To the same period belongs Nestor's 'Chronicle of Kiev,' that set the pace for a considerable number of local chronicles, from which in modern times the history of ancient Russia has been reconstructed. There must have existed, at that time, a considerable secular literature, but the Church ruthlessly persecuted any such manifestation, and only folk epics, for the first time collected in the 19th century, give us any poetical reminiscences of Kiev in the days of its greatest glory. Only one literary production of exceptional beauty has escaped the persecution of the Church, The Word of Igor's Armament, a prose poem dealing with a disastrous expedition of Prince Igor against the nomad Polovtses of the South. This, too, was first published in the beginning of the 19th century, when it immediately attracted universal attention and was translated into many foreign languages. There also has been preserved a 14th century imitation of this production in 'The Exploits Beyond the Don,' which is an interesting account of the battle at Kulikovo in 1380. The Middle Ages are in Russia unusually rich in a mass of apocryphal stories, bestiaries and romantic adventures, which serve as important links between the

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Greek and Latin apocryphal literature and similar productions in the West. As an example of these may serve The Holy Virgin's Descent into Hell, which contains elements akin to those worked up by Dante in his 'Divine Comedy. No appreciable addition to literary style is to be observed before the 16th century, when Polish scholastic learning at Kiev began to penetrate into Russia at the same time that Western ideas found their way to Moscow through the protection given to foreigners by Ivan the Terrible. It is then that we get the feeble beginnings of Russian history by the exiled Andrey Kurbski and the Book of Management,' the 'Domostroy,' by Ivan's adviser, Sylvester. This is apparently an attempt to create for Russia a manual of manners, such as at that time appeared in Italy and elsewhere. Its unusual harshness has made the 'Domostroy a by-word for the Asiatic rudeness of the pre-Petrine civilization. Only at the end of the 17th century does a weak light enter from the West in the writings of Simeon Polotski, who came entirely under the influence of the Kiev scholasticism. He thus precedes the period of Peter the Great, with whom a new era dawns upon Russia.

The

Peter the Great abolished the old Church script, and introduced in its place the modern alphabet, which leaned to some extent on the Latin script. With this, Peter the Great broke with the ecclesiastic tradition, and by degrees the vernacular Russian, at first strongly impregnated with the Church Slavic, makes its entrance into the written language. The time of Peter was productive only of utilitarian works on mathematics and the applied sciences, but we have even then the remarkable economic work The Book on Poverty and Wealth,' by Ivan Pososhkov, the peasant manufacturer, who was called the Russian Adam Smith. History of Russia' by Tatishchev did not see its light until the end of the century, as there was no interest as yet in such literary production in the time of Peter, but the Spiritual Reglement of Prokopovich, who advocated Peter's liberal reforms, was one of the first Russian books to be translated into English. Kantemir's satires, based on those of Boileau and Horace, appeared in the time of Queen Anna, and about the same time talentless Tredyakovski established the prosody for the Russian poetry, and a little later the manysided Lomonosov, in his poetical productions and scentific labors, laid the foundation for the literary norm, which half a century later was to be perfected in its present form by Karamzin. The second half of the 18th century is especially rich in the drama, where, however, nothing notable was produced, except in the comedy. Here we have the classical Odd People, by Knyazhnin, The Minor,' by von Visin, and The Pettifogger,' by Kapnist. Among the writers of historical dramas are Sumarokov, the creator of the Russian theatre; Knyazhnin, whose republican sentiments in Vadim of Novgorod' created quite a stir, and Ozerov, whose 'Dmitri Donskoy' appeared opportunely on the eve of the Napoleonic War. Catherine herself tried her hand at the drama of manners, and by her example encouraged the creation of the satirical journals, in which Novikov was most prominent.

The first half of the 18th century did not

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rise above an imitation of the French pseudoclassic school, but toward the end of the century the English influence, especially that of Addison, becomes more prominent. In 1790 there appeared Radishchev's Journey from Saint Petersburg to Moscow,' whose very title indicates its obligation to Sterne's 'Sentimental Journey, and with it a spirit of liberalism, coupled with the sentimentality which held sway in the West, entered Russia. Of the poets of the time, who were also falling under Italian and Latin influence, the most prominent is Derzhävin, who bridges over from the 18th to the 19th century, and who, by his violent attack on the turgid ode of the preceding period, put an end to the slavish imitation of foreign models, and himself produced noteworthy poems. His 'Ode to the Deity) was translated into several languages and breathes an advanced Deism. Karamzin, who had lived

in England, introduced the simpler English style into literature, and in his voluminous "History of Russia,' in his sentimental novels, such as the famous 'Poor Liza,' and in his many sentimental poems, made the Russian language a perfect vehicle of thought. The romantic movement, then prevalent in Germany, had little effect upon Russia. Kamenev's romantic poems and Zhukovski's excellent translations from the German did not create a school in Russia.

The end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries are rich in talents who made the West accessible to Russia in all literary endeavors. The influence of the French fabulists, especially LaFontaine, is seen in Sumorokov, the dramatist, in the poet Maykov, in Izmaylov, but reaches its apogee in the genius Krylov, who entered the literary field with some mediocre comedies, but gained universal recognition by his a little more than 100 fables, less than two for each year of his life, because he was the first to place the foreign models in a distinctive Russian setting. The sentimentalism, which was introduced by Radishchev, found its continuators in a number of poets, among whom Kozlov (1779-1840) is probably the most talented. In Vyazemski (1792-1878) sentimentalism, which came otherwise to an end in the 40's, survived until the end of the 70's. These poets sang not only of solitude, but also of the gentle home associations and the awesome sentiment of religion in places sanctified by age, and thus they introduced the worship of antiquity, which found its expression in the laudation of Moscow and Kiev, and the holy places, and led to a series of poets, not distinctly sentimental, who may be denominated as the patriotic and religious poets. Thus Glinka (1788-1880) published a series, Spiritual Songs, and Rylyeev (17961826), by his historical ballads, in which there breathes a spirit of liberty, incurred the suspicion of the government, and was one of the literary lights to fall a victim of the December Revolution. The Italian influence, especially that of Tasso, is discernible in Bätyushkov (1787-1855), whose The Dying Tasso' is a poem of unusual merit, but who unfortunately was lost to literature for the last 35 years of his life, having become hopelessly insane.

In the drama Griboyedov (1795-1829) continued the tradition begun by Fonvizin and Kapnist, and his 'Intelligence Comes to Grief,'

>

in which he mercilessly flayed the old order of things, the servility, militarism and superficiality which harked back to the days of Catherine, remained for a long time a classic on the stage. The romantic movement of the English type, which reveled in the past and in adventure under exotic conditions, appealed to the younger generation in the beginning of the 19th century, and some notable results were achieved. Bestuzhev (1797-1837), who himself led a Byronic existence, wrote some good novels of martial adventure, such as 'Ammalat Bek,' and the historical novels of Lazhechnikov (1794-1869), The Heretic,' 'The Last Noviks,' The Ice House,' have lately been resuscitated from oblivion and are read with pleasure. But the poets of this school, Pushkin (1799-1837) and Lermontov (1814-41) have gained the greatest reputation. Pushkin began his career during his banishment to the Crimea and the with some extravagant romantic poems, but Caucasus he found the proper setting for the Byronism which was then taking possession of the nation, and to this he gave utterance in 'The Bakhchisaray Fountain, The Gypsies,' "The Prisoner of the Caucasus,' etc. His masterpiece is 'Evgeni Onyegin, a novel in verse, which is considered as the prototype of a long series of Russian novels, in which the Russian hero is discussed. He tried himself in the historical drama and produced 'Boris Godunov,' a splendid poem, which is hardly fit for the stage. Having devoted himself to historical studies, he wrote 'A History of the Pugachev Rebellion,' and on his investigation based a series of stories, of which 'The Captain's Daughter' is probably the best. Lermontov even surpassed Pushkin in the facility of his verse, but his career was cut short at the age of 27, when he had already produced several volumes. Besides a number of tunable songs, he wrote a number of romantic poems, of which 'The Demon' is the most notable. Of his prose tales the most important is 'The Hero of Our Time,' which, as the title indicates, is a continuation of the question created by Pushkin in his 'Evgeni Onyegin, and the hero of this new novel is the same blasé type as created by the Byronic attitude of the time.

The first half of the 19th century was particularly rich in poets, and among them must especially be mentioned Koltsev (1808-42), because he followed out the suggestion made some time before by Delvig that the popular element should find a place in the artificial poetry, and created a series of scenes from the homely life of the peasant and laborer, which at once made the poetry accessible to the masses, who still read him. At the same time Gogol (1809-52) struck out in a similar direction, by depicting the life of his native Ukraine, and the sordid existence of the small officials. His short stories, The Mantle,' 'The Nose, etc., were the forerunners of his own longer tales and of the whole mass of realistic stories with which Russian literature has enriched the world. His 'Dead Souls' shows his obligation to Cervantes, but the story, in which we get a series of pensketches of country people, is unique and true to life. His 'The Revizor, the best-constructed comedy to be found anywhere, in which he depicted the rascality of town officials, has remained a classic

until the present, and his romantic stories, such as Taras Bulba,' are still enjoyed in Russia and abroad. Gogol is the last of the men of the new period of Russian literature, and his appearance is the more significant, since it is correlated with that of the critic Byelinski, the first of a series of writers who viewed the Russian world of letters as an organic whole and who attached themselves more especially to some prominent author of his time. It was Byelinski (1811-48) who created the name of "The Natural School" as a specific manifestation of literature in Russia and illustrated his conception with an analysis of Gogol's works.

With Byelinski begins the newest period of Russian literature, which during his activity is characterized by an attempt to find itself. The years 1848-55, that is, up to the Crimean War, are the period of the "Censorship Terror," when the new authors, Shchedrin, Turgenev, Nekrasov and others were crushed and literature has no conquests to record. The next six years have been denominated "The honeymoon of Russian progress." The belles-lettres become "accusing," the foundation for this type of didactic writing being laid by the humorous Saltykov-Shchedrin with his 'Provincial Sketches. Everybody was interested in the burning questions of the day, hence the importance of Chernyshevski's (1828-89) What to Do?' in which he applied the acid test to the questions of life. Turgenev (1818-83), who had written his epoch-making Memoirs of a Hunter' at the end of the 40's, now developed his literary activity in his famous novels, 'Rudin,' A Nobleman's Nest,' and in 1861 expressed the struggle of two generations in his famous 'Fathers and Sons. During the same period appeared Goncharov's (1812-91) 'Oblomov, a novel of the "Russian hero" type, which brought out a detailed analysis of the characteristic Russian novel by the critic Dobrolyubov (1836-61). Pisemski (1820-81) produced his best novel, 'A_Thousand Souls,' and his best drama, 'Bitter Fate,' in which he was still constructively active, and not destructively hostile to the manifestations of progress. Ostrovski (1822-86) wrote his "humane» drama, which culminated in "The Storm' (1860). Only the poets did not fare well during these six years and the following period, because they continued the tradition of "art for art's sake," which was violently attacked by the critic Pisarev. Thus the admirable poems of Maykov (1821-97), Fet (1820-92), Tyutchev (1803-73), Mey (1822-62) and many others suffered almost complete oblivion, as did the historical novel, 'Prince Serebryany,' and the dramas in verse by Alexis Tolstoi (1817-75).

The first half of the 60's is an epoch of reaction and Nihilism. It was then that Pisarev (1841-68) developed his destructive criticism which led to the abandonment of art for art's sake and the enthronement of the "poetry of the people" by Nikitin (1824-61), which was developed in its fullest form by the people's idol Nekrasov (1818-77). The period of Nihilism brought forward a considerable number of writers from the middle and lower classes of society, who devoted all their energy to the peasants and the submerged. The most talented among these were Pomyalovski (1835-63), Nicholas Uspenski (1842-89), Levitov (1842

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77), Ryeshetnikov (1841-71). To the same period belong the authoresses Marko-Vovchok (1830-1907) and Kokhanovskaya (1825-84), though they did not belong to the worshippers of "the people." The best novelist who dealt with the peasants was Slyeptsov (1836-78), whose masterpiece is 'Difficult Times.'

The 70's are denominated "the epoch of the highest development of altruism." In this period Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-89) produced his masterly 'Family Golovlev' and 'Poshekhon Antiquity, Dostoevski (1821-81), has 'Memoirs from the Deal House' and 'Crime and Punishment.' Although Dostoevski had been met with indifference in the 60's, he now was acclaimed, on account of his later writings, as a moral teacher "from whom one did not learn what to love, but only to love." Leo Tolstoi (1828-1910), who had equally been received coldly in the 60's, and whose Anna Karenin' was viewed merely as a novel of high life, now attracted universal attention by his 'Confession' and his religious writings. The period was rich in authors of less pronounced talent. Lavrov (1823-1900), around whom gathered the progressive elements, exerted a great influence with his historical writings, especially his 'Introduction to a History of Thought.' Mikhaylovski (1842-1902), by his enormous number of sociological critiques, in which he, in opposition to Spencer, tried to show that "the ideal" is the most important part of the historical personality in history, created a whole school of "idealizing” novelists, among whom the most prominent are Zlatovratski (1845-), Naumov (1828-1901), Nefedov (1848-1902). This also led to the narodnichestvo, "the worship of the masses," which resulted in a very great number of scientific essays on the condition of the peasant, among the writers of which the most noteworthy are Vorontsov and Engelhard, and in the field of belles-lettres Glyeb Uspenski (1840-1902), by far the most talented author who dealt with the peasant. Other noteworthy authors, who did not devote themselves to "the people," are Garshin (1855-88), who wrote some remarkable short stories, Minski (1855-), the translator of Homer, Potapenko (1856-) and Korolenko (1853-), whose charming stories have been widely translated, the melancholy Nadson (186287), "the poet of the struggle," Yakubovich (1860-), the novelist Boborykin (1836—), whose voluminous activity tried to seize the transient phase of life. A similar activity was developed by the novelists Sheller (1838-1900) and Stanyukevich (1844-1903), who preached an intelligent progressivism, which also led to the critical labors of Pypin (1833-1905), whose History of Russian Literature' is a work of the highest order. Among the great host of authors of that period may be mentioned Melnikov (1819-83), who devoted himself to the portraying of the dissenters, Lyeskov (1831-95), who at first wrote stories about Nihilists, and later from the sordid provincial life, Karazin (1848), the Russian Fenimore Cooper, who depicted central Asiatic scenes, NemirovichDanchenko (1842-), the military novelist, Mamin-Sibiryak (1852-), who revels in Ural

scenes.

The eighties have been denominated "the epoch of despair," which was ushered in by the Pobyedonostsev reaction. Pobyedonostsev

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(1827-1907) despised all progress and crushed all free thought, hence the ensuing pessimism and weakness of will, as it appears chiefly in Chekhov's (1860-1904) short stories and dramas, and even Leo Tolstoi's mysticism and desire for self-perfection is ascribed to the disheartening condition of the political life in the last two decades of the 19th century. Among the large number of feuilleton writers of this period there stands out Amfiteatrov (1864) as a champion of freedom, while others, like Menshikov (1859-) turned sordid opportunists, and Tikhomirov (1850-) became a violent reactionary. Another result of the suppression of free thought was the resurrection of "art for art's sake," and here we find the poet Fofanov (1862-), Andreevski (1847-), Apukhtin (1841-93), GolenishchevKutuzov (1848-). Far more genuine was Frug (1860-), who sang of his Jewish compatriots, under the oppressive sensations of the pogroms. The period was rich in women who made a place for themselves in literature, such as Shapir (1850-), Krestovskaya-Kartavtsevaya (1862-), Dmitrieva (1859-), who depicted scenes from peasant life.

The 90's are a period of regeneration, as the previous decade had been more properly a period of decadence. It is particularly marked by the growth of Marxian socialism, which finds its expression in a large number of scientific and popular treatises on political economy by Plekhanov (1857—), Tugan-Baranovski (1865-), Bulgakov (1871-), and especially Lenin, the leader of social democracy. In the belleslettres this socialistic tendency was represented by Chirikov (1864-), Veresaev (1867-) and Pyeshkov (1869-), who writes under the pseudonym of Maxim Gorky. Chirikov later busied himself with psychological studies, while Veresaev gained his reputation by his merciless analysis of a physician's activity in his 'Memoirs of a Physician.' Gorki, who has risen from the slum to be the famous author of the slums, revels in bright colors and "through beauty arrives at truth." He is the most pronounced follower of Marxism, and, in the spirit of his master, despises alike the bourgeoisie and the peasant, saving all his sympathy for the submerged "who dare."

In 1897 Andreev, who was discovered by Gorki, began to write his gloomy stories, in which appear decadents, half-insane, neurotic characters. Since 1904 he has fallen prey to symbolism, although he still deals with realistic scenes. At the same time modernists made their appearance, who, like the poet Balmont and the novelist Merezhkovski, have taken for their subject beauty and not morality. In his trilogy, Julian the Apostate, Leonardo da Vinci and Peter and Alexis,' Merezhkovski dealt with the conflict of Christianity with the Antichrist, taking his part with the latter. Hence he, in his critical essays on Tolstoi, condemned the author for his Christian meekness. Similarly Balmont has taken to poetry, in order to treat art for art's sake, thus reverting to the older school. The most talented poet of this new movement is Bryusov, who in a dispassionate way describes the passions and dissolving death. He has also written a number of fantastic stories, such as 'The Fiery Angel,' a story of medieval witchcraft. Other

modernists are the poet Ivanov, Blok and pessimistic Solugub. The latter has also distinguished himself in a number of novels, among which 'The Imp is the best. A very prolific story-writer is Remizov, who portrays chiefly provincial scenes. It has not been possible to follow the literary activity in Russia since the beginning of the war, and nothing can be said of the outlook for the future.

Bibliography. In the Russian language there are numerous aids to the study of its literature. One should consult the works of Aikhenvald, Arabazhin, Chukovski, Gornfeld, Milyukov, Morozov, Ovsyaniko-Kulikovski, Pypin, Skabichevski, Tikhonavov, Vengerov, A. N. Veselovski. Russian literature as a whole has been treated in English in the following works: Baring, M., Landmarks in Russian Literature' (New York 1910); 'An Outline of Russian Literature' (London and New York 1914); Brandes, G., Impressions of Russia' (New York 1889); Hapgood, I. F., 'A Survey of Russian Literature, with selections' (New York 1902); Kropotkin, P. A., 'Russian Literature' (New York 1905); Waliszewski, K., A History of Russian Literature' (New York 1900). There are the following collections in English: Bechhofer, C. E., A Russian Anthology in English' (London and New York 1917); Tollemache, B. L., 'Russian Sketches, Chiefly of Peasant Life' (London 1913); Wiener, L., Anthology of Russian Literature from the Earliest Period to the Present Time' (New York 1902-03); Newmarch, R., Poetry and Progress in Russia' (London 1907); Bianchi, M. G. D., 'Russian Lyrics, Songs of Cossack, Lover, Patriot and Peasant' (New York 1910); Bowing, Sir J., 'Specimens of the Russian Poets (Boston 1822); Pollen, J., 'Russian Songs and Lyrics' (London 1916); Selver, P., 'Modern Russian Poetry (London 1917). A number of poets and novelists are dealt with in The Russian Review (London 1912-).

LEO WIENER,

Professor of Slavic Languages and Literature, Harvard University.

5. RUSSIAN DRAMA. In Russia, as in Greece, the drama arose from the commingling of the religious and secular elements. Mystery plays were imported through Poland and Kiev from western Europe and introduced into Moscow by Semyon Polotski in the time of Tsar Alexis (1645-76). Johann G. Gregori, a German Lutheran pastor, translated German mystery plays, and Dmitri Rostovski produced some akin to the moralities, in which Biblical characters were supplemented by allegorical personifications. The introduction of these crude beginnings was to some extent facilitated by the previous existence in Russia of religious ceremonies (deistva) having a slightly dramatic character. Gradually moral reflections and local touches were introduced into the religious dramas, Western plays of non-religious content were produced, French comedies (Molière), translated, and finally plays on Russian themes were staged. Four theatres are mentioned in Petrograd in Peter's time (1702-24).

Thus was paved the way for Sumarokov (1717-77), the first Russian literateur by profession, who in some 20 plays, imitations of Racine and Voltaire, popularized in Russia the

pseudo-classical drama with its rigid "unities," and artificiality. The theatre now became firmly grounded and the profession of actor (Volkov, Dmitrevski) was established. This type of play remained extremely popular until the middle of the 19th century and still finds some favor. But the great wave of democracy which has been rolling over Europe since 1775, and which brought the French and American revolutions, the insurrections of 1848, the liberation of the American slaves and the Russian serfs, and which has at last culminated in the Russian Revolution and the plans for a League of Nations - this wave swept away the old drama and brought on its crest the modern national, Russian Realistic Drama.

Even as early as 1769 the Empress Catherine's favorite, D. I. von Visin, to a considerable extent abandoned the artificial ways of his predecessors. He represented contemporary life in a fairly faithful manner and gave his plays a direct social purpose - the satirizing of the effete nobility. He was followed by Krylov (the wonderful fable writer) with similar but inferior plays. During the entire first half of the 19th century (during which period the romantic school-represented by Lermontov's 'Demon,' exercised a considerable temporary influence in Russia) only three important dramas approaching the newer type appeared: Griboedov's comedy Woe from Wit, Gogol's comedy The Inspector and Pushkin's tragedy 'Boris Godunov. Although the first drew much from Molière's 'Misanthrope and although the last bears considerable resemblance to Shakespeare's historical dramas, yet all are undoubtedly long steps in advance toward the realistic drama. This is particularly true of 'The Inspector.) In 1850 appeared the first of the 48 plays of Ostrovski, who is rightly regarded as the father of the national drama, since he not only developed its distinctive characteristics to a high degree but also won for it a permanent place on the Russian stage.

Ostrovski, in keeping with the democratic trend of contemporary thought, turns away from the nobility and the official classes, which up to his time had been the chief subjects of drama, and devotes himself to the large middle and lower classes of the Russian cities, particularly to the merchants of Moscow. He raised his voice against everything among them that stood as a bar to human liberty. In method and style he is frank, direct and simple. Simplicity is revealed in the plot, which offers a striking contrast to the relatively complex plots of most Western plays. Often there is scarcely any trace of a traditional plot. His plays are more like a series of pictures of daily life quietly unfolding, than like a series of unusual events combined with a view to revealing their complex interrelations and collisions of interests. There are comparatively few characters, sometimes astonishingly few (four, five or six), which precludes the massing of characters for striking effects upon the stage. Simplicity is revealed also in the language, which is the language of the people and not the stilted artificial language of the classic stage. The simplicity of Ostrovski's art also appears in the small amount of action on the stage and the relatively calm emotional tone that pervades his

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In

plays. Many Russians think that this is characteristic of modern life in general as contrasted with, for example, mediæval life; they believe that thought (reasoning) are coming to decide men's fortunes more than violence. most Russian dramas at any rate, the actors appear and disappear without great bustle or excitement. They talk about the most ordinary events of life, the weather, the town gossip; yet little by little it becomes clear that these apparently trifling matters are really the most important of all, and that these people are passing their most critical days and deciding, though half unconsciously, questions that will determine, not only their own fortunes, but the future of society as well. "The comedy" (and tragedy) "of Ostrovski is not the comedy of intrigue or of character, but something quite new, which could be called the drama of life, if the term were not too wide and indefinite. mean that throughout his plays he puts into the foreground the general conditions of life which are not dependent upon any of the characters of the play. He does not punish either the miscreant or the victim. They both arouse our pity, sometimes our mirth. But it is not upon them that our emotion centres. We see that their environment controls their actions, and that they have not the energy to oppose it. So the conflict demanded by the theory of the drama is not comprised in the dialogue, but in the conditions which control the characters. Often the characters have no appreciation of their own position or of this conflict. But the conflict goes on in the listener, who is incensed by the conditions of life that beget it.”— Dobroliubov.

I

All these qualities of Ostrovski's art may be summed up in the word realism. But Russian realism is of a peculiar type, because the Russian writers are not simply realists; they are also intense idealists. Yet they understand that man cannot attain Utopia by mounting above the clouds on the golden wings of fancy. Though guided by his ideals, he must erect a staircase slowly and with toil out of acts of his daily life. Russian realism is a fusion of realism and idealism. Through its pictures of the realities of life shimmers life's religious, moral and social significance.

Contemporary with Ostrovski were Turgenev and Potekhin. The plays of the former, though inferior to his other writings, are of a high merit. Potekhin's plays, being outspokenly democratic, met serious opposition from the censor. Pisemski's, 'A Bitter Lot,' is the most effective peasant drama before Leo Tolstoi's The Power of Darkness.'

The chief writers of drama since Ostrovski are Chekhov, Gorki and Andreev. Chekhov, who was primarily a short story writer, wrote five regular plays and several short dramatic pieces. A few years ago statistics of the public libraries showed that he was the most widely read of Russian authors. In his plays he treats the middle and upper classes of the reactionary period of the age of reconstruction following the emancipation of the serfs. Only one of them, however, Ivanov,' was written in the earlier, more pessimistic period of his career. He is particularly remembered for the marvelous success of his 'Sea Gull when it was staged by the Moscow Art Theatre of Stanis