nated as (1) The Primitive Period, (2) The Byzantine Period, (3) The Period of Transition, and (4) The Modern Period. The first embraces Russia's musical history from earliest times to the introduction of Christianity; the second, the seven centuries following that significant event; the third, the 18th century; and the fourth, the great period from Glinka to the present day.

The Primitive Period. Although the limits of the earliest period of Russian music cannot be determined with any definiteness, it is known to have been a long and important one. There is abundant circumstantial evidence to show that music figured considerably in the life of the Wends (Slavic tribes of the Western group) as early as the 6th century. That it was known to and practised by other Slavonic tribes much earlier seems quite probable. Early chronicles, and especially the numerous epic songs of Russia (the "byliny"), prove conclusively that, in peace and war, music never failed to thrill the primitive Slavs, whose greatest pleasure it was at home and on their wanderings.

The period of ancient Russia music, like the earliest beginnings of music generally, comprised chiefly songs- folksongs whose professional promoters were the "Skomorokhi," those wandering minstrels ("Merry Andrews," the Russians fondly called them) who were both the composers and the preservers of Russia's precious old songs and epics. This early band of minstrels, which included the great Bayan, seems to have branched out later into several divisions, each performing a somewhat different musical function and all having their modern-naturally much modernizedrepresentatives in Russia to this day. Originally, however, there were only two classes of these wandering musicians: straight musicians, who sang or played on the primitive Russian harp, "gusslia," and those who did other than musical stunts (like juggling) for the diversion of the people. As the latter were called by the name "Skomorokhi" (a word of dubious origin and etymology), there came in the course of time to be many kinds of Skomorokhi, corresponding to their diverse ways of entertaining. Without enumerating all these, it may be well to add, before dismissing this part of the subject, that these wandering minstrels either sang the legendary or heroic songs of ancient Russia, played for dancing, or acted as buffoons or entertainers. That they were much more than a transitory factor in the life of ancient Russia is shown by the fact that, despite centuries of persecution by the Byzantine Church, none of the general types of Skomorokhi ever became quite extinct. The bards ultimately became poets or poetasters; the musical performers developed into orchestral musicians; while the crude entertainers eventually became regular

actors.

So much for Russian primitive music and the musicians who performed, preserved and developed it. The third factor to be considered in this part of our survey is the subject of primitive Russian musical instruments. There were many of these "folk-instruments," whose origin is as obscure as that of the Russian folksongs themselves. Owing to Russia's long isolation from cultural (Western) influences, as well as

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to the ban put upon tolksongs and secular instrumental music by the Protestant Russian Church, Russian musical instruments were not developed and perfected as were those of western Europe. The most important of them were: (1) STRING INSTRUMENTS- the gussli (several varieties of horizontal harps, having from 7 to 13 strings), the dombra (a guitar-like instrument), the bandura (a large instrument having 8 to 20 strings, which has supplanted the more primitive kobza), and the balalaika (a triangular, long-necked instrument having originally two but now usually three strings); (2) WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS the zhalaika (a reed pipe with six sound stops), the svirel (a very simple piped instrument), the surna (a shrill pipe of Oriental origin), the rozhok (a simple hornshaped instrument with six stops), and the dudka (a form of bagpipe); (3) PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS- the buben (tambourine), the lozhki (wooden cymbals) and the nakry (kettledrums). Most of these primitive instruments are still used in provincial Russia, and many of them have been so far perfected as to become orchestral instruments. The most notable instance of such use in very recent times is V. V. Andreyev's, in his famous Balalaika Orchestra (composed of some 30 pieces of the kind just described, without any bowed instruments), which has toured both Europe and America, rendering mostly Russian folksongs or music of a similarly light and simple character.

The Byzantine Period.-The highest development of the primitive national period of Russian music- the great folksong period was reached toward the close of the 10th century, in the reign of Vladimir I (980-1015), the first Christian prince of Russia. With the introduction of Christianity into Russia, a long period of decadence set in for Russian folksong, as for all other kinds of national popular diversion and entertainment. The priests of the new faith, in a spirit of truly medieval asceticism, waged relentless warfare against the un-Christian spirit of the Slavonic songs and legends they found in the land of the erstwhile pagans. Watching zealously over the social and domestic life of the newly converted nation, the Byzantine Church proscribed all folksinging and persecuted its protégés, the Skomorokhi. But so dear were these folk-melodies to the hearts of the Russian people that even such constant persecution, much as it hindered their national development, could not entirely arrest their growth. It was those very Skomorokhi, or gleemen, whom we have just mentioned, that kept alive the spirit of folksong in Russia during centuries of Christian persecution. Taking refuge in the woods and remote villages, these wandering minstrels entertained and diverted their eager audiences pretty much as of old. The rich Russian nobles, moreover, persisted in maintaining, openly or secretly, their customary retinues of minstrels, despite clerical bans and displeasure. But, in the course of time, a new kind of song developed, a kind of song in which the earlier pagan sentiments were tempered with Christian. Being less spontaneous than the earlier folksongs, this curious conglomeration — and it seems to have been no more than that was neither as pure nor as musical. With this de

terioration of song came, naturally, a deterioration of the minstrels who sang it. The "spiritual songs which the Russian gleemen seem to have invented at this time were neither a thing of beauty nor a joy forever. They were frankly and patently a substitute - and a very poor one at that for the primitive but delightful folktunes, which were to remain submerged for centuries.

But the influence of the Church of this period on Russian music was not only negative. The Byzantine priests brought with them from the East a number of old church songs. In the 11th century, too, Greek singers introduced the Greek musical system into Russia. Soon music schools sprang up in various parts of Russia at Smolensk, at Novgorod, and elsewhere - in which this system was studied and popularized. Gradually interest in church music spread, and the laity also learned to know and care for it. In the 12th century, if not earlier, efforts were made at chanting, which in the early days constituted the whole of the liturgic music. This was modeled more and more upon the famous Gregorian chant, while parallel texts accompanied the music notes one in Greek and another in Slavonic (church Slavonic, to be sure). The Greek and Slavonic systems of notation, too, were long rivals, the former prevailing well into the middle of the 13th century. The greatest promoters of church music in Russia have been its tsars, who have maintained regular church choirs ever since the 15th century. It was out of these church choirs, constantly improved and augmented, that finally developed the now world-renowned Choir of the Imperial Chapel.

Among those who had done most to develop and perfect Russian church music were M. S. Beriozovsky (1745-77), perhaps the greatest Russian composer of sacred music; D. S. Bortiansky (1751-1825), a most gifted composer, who has done more than anyone else to perfect

the above-mentioned Imperial Chapel Choir and whom the Russians have aptly named "the Russian Palestrina"; A. Lvov (1799-1836), composer of much meritorious music, but especially famous as the author of the Russian national anthem, and Degtiarev (1766-1813), composer of much interesting church music as well as of the secular oratorio, 'The Deliverance of Russia in 1612. Excellent collected editions of liturgical music of the Russian Church, variously harmonized, have been published at Petrograd under the auspices of the Imperial Chapel. Two ancient musical grammars, published in facsimile, are also available. There are any number of works on the subject of Russian church music.

The Period of Transition.- The salutary influences of church music just referred to came long after the Byzantine period. They were mentioned under the preceding section merely for completeness. As a matter of fact, the dominance of Byzantine music in Russia ended soon after Western influences began to reach it, first through Kiev in the 17th century and next through Saint Petersburg in the 18th century. It was in the reign of Tsar Alexey Mikhailovitch (1645-76), Peter the Great's father, that the influx of foreign culture into Russia first began. Naturally, music was among the arts affected. Following European

fashion, court choirs and orchestras came into vogue. The wandering minstrels of old (the oft-mentioned Skomorokhi), hitherto banished and persecuted by the overzealous Church, now became regular musicians and actors. The nobility, imitating the court, also now began to maintain their private little bands of musicians. Later these would give public performances, and thus musical interest was being stimulated by various agencies. When, finally, toward the end of Alexey Mikhailovitch's reign, the old ban on folksongs and secular music generally was lifted, the glory of Russian folksong- much dimmed, it is true, by centuries of disuse and somewhat denatured by the longprevalent Byzantine music once more returned to the land.

But conditions generally did not yet favor Russia's spiritual awakening, which followed the era of Westernization ushered in by Peter the Great (1689-1725). Nor did the change come all at once even then. It was impossible for Peter's numerous reforms to make themselves felt so quickly in any field. Certainly music was one of the last things to have throbbed with the new life that then began to stir sluggish Russia. It would seem that, with the multitude of political and social reforms claiming constant attention in the reign of this sovereign, the arts suffered proportionately greater neglect. At any rate, during Peter's reign music remained but a diversion of the court an aid to the lustre of social functions, etc.- for Peter himself is said to have found as little pleasure in opera and comedy as in the chase. His tastes were only for church music. According to a reliable musical historian (Korb), as late as 1698 music was still only an accompaniment to various occasional feasts and celebrations in the homes of nobles, wealthy merchants, and German officers residing in Russia. Native Russian musicians were still too scarce in 1702 to make up the small orchestra of the Moscow Theatre without importing men from Hamburg. And the orchestras of that day were very small. Even court orchestras did not exceed 20 instruments, chiefly brass. Nor did their musical efforts have any artistic merit. Even military music of a very crude character did not find its way into Russia before 1704, after which it came to be used at funerals. As to folksongs, the court and society generally evinced no particular fondness for them, despite the new lease of life given to them in 1722 by Peter's ukase permitting popular musical diversions on certain Church holidays.

But greater musical progress was made in Russia under Peter's successors, Anna Ivanovna and Elizabetha Petrovna. It was under the former that Italian opera first appeared in Russia (1735). The event and date have great historical significance because they mark the beginning of a long period of foreign (chiefly Italian) operatic influence, from which Russia did not fully emerge for over a century. According to Vladimir Stassov, a famous Russian musical critic and historian, the first Italian opera produced in Russia was Francesco Araja's 'Albiazar,' conducted by its Italian composer, who was court kapellmeister under both Empress Anna and Elizabeth. Other foreign operas, mostly the work of the same composer, followed in rapid succession. But

none of them had anything Russian to recommend them, although several composers tried persistently to give to their non-Russian works some Russian flavor. Thus the above-mentioned Araja produced an opera in 1755 ('Cephalus and Procius') which was written to a Russianized libretto and which was the first opera sung in Russia in the vernacular.

During Elizabeth's reign music in Russia became a fad, if not a veritable craze, every wealthy merchant aping the court fashion by organizing private musical bands and choirs. It was then, chiefly through the influence of Count Razumovsky (immortalized by Beethoven) that Russian folktunes came into vogue again. Araja and others started to introduce them into their operas. Thus appeared for the first time instrumental music which used and artistically developed Russian folksong themes. Under such favorable circumstances, native Russian singers and even composers developed. Besides the famous composers of church music mentioned in the preceding section, there were F. G. Volkov (1729-63), the eminent Russian actor, whose opera Tanyuska) (said to have been first performed in 1756) was the first all-Russian opera produced in Russia; and E. P. Fomin (1741-1800), a prolific composer of operas, whose (Anyuta' (produced in 1772) comes much closer even than Volkov's work to having been one of the precursors of genuine Russian opera. The historical importance of such compositions becomes more obvious if we bear in mind the fact that most of the foreign "operas" of those days were really only series of more or less successful musical vaudeville acts.

Still greater musical progress was made in Russia under Catherine the Great, who was the first Russian ruler to give serious attention to general musical education. In her reign the study of music was introduced into girls' schools, while a student orchestra was organized at the Moscow University. Musicales became frequent and musical clubs multiplied, both factors exerting incalculable influence upon Russia's musical development. Temporarily halted in the reign of Catherine's successor, who entangled Russia in a war with France, this development received a new stimulus from the spirit of nationalism which followed the great Napoleonic defeat of 1812. Russia was determined to shake herself free, as it were, from foreign fashions and influences, which had long hindered her independent national development, in music as in other things.

Naturally, such a task could not be accomplished all at once. Persistent and numerous attempts in this direction were made with varying degrees of success by such composers as Titov (1800-76), Aliabiev (1802-52), Varlamov (1801-51), Gurilev (1802-56), Vielgorsky (1788-1856), Verstovsky (1799-1862) and, especially, the very prolific Venetian composer residing in Russia, Catterino Cavos (1776-1840), who rendered particularly great service to the Russian music-drama. Though the musical education of most of these composers had been too German-Italian to enable them to write music that should be truly and fully Russian, the work of this group of "pre-nationalists" or "pseudo-nationalists," as it has been variously called, certainly paved the way for the great

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Glinka, the first truly national Russian composer, with whom modern Russian music really began.

The Modern Period.- Hardly any period of Russian music illustrates better than the modern the principle, referred to at the beginning of this survey, that Russia's cultural and artistic development practically reflects the general course of her eventful history. The new and vigorous impulse given to Russian life and thought by the pregnant events of 1812 an impulse making for thoroughgoing nationalism - found its expression in the field of music, no less than in science, art and literature. Not only did the first quarter of the 19th century witness a still greater development of opera in Russia, but orchestral music first received serious attention and systematic study there. The great classical composers, from Bach to Beethoven, were introduced to Russian audiences between 1802-19 by the assiduous efforts of the Russian Philharmonic Society, the oldest Russian organization of its kind, founded in 1802. Besides, orchestral concerts given by various educational institutions (with the participation of their students) supplied more popular musical diversion. That the musical public grew rapidly in those days, Glinka himself tells us. The general elation caused by the sudden victory of 1812 spurred on even Russian composers to new efforts; and we have, as a result, the first Russian oratorios and songs (best done, perhaps, by the above-mentioned pre-nationalist, Titov) and the so-called cantatas of Verstovsky, another of Glinka's contemporaries, who, together with the energetic Cavos, may be said to have tilled the soil of Russian opera into which Glinka was to plant the sturdy seeds of nationalism a little later.

Although the development of Russian music in the 19th and 20th centuries has been continuous, it cannot be said to have been homogeneous. At least three distinct general tendencies are discernible in this period: (1) the nationalist, (2) the Western and what may be called (3) the cosmopolitan or eclectic. We shall consider each separately and in the order given, concluding with a summary view of (4)_recent tendencies.

The Nationalist School.-The father of this great school of Russian music was Mikhail Ivanovitch Glinka (1804-57), who did for Russian music what Pushkin (q.v.) did for Russian literature, or Ivanov for Russian art. Although Glinka began composing in the German-Italian vein, he soon set his heart resolutely against foreign models and, by dint of genius, created music as characteristically Russian as has ever been done since. His two songs composed abroad in 1832 already disclosed Glinka's groping for a new musical style, and his epoch-making opera, 'A Life for the Tsar' (1836), gave further intimations of the birth of an independent national school of music in Russia. This opera, while still markedly Italian, has sufficient Russian color it uses Russian folktunes and is based on a Russian plot - to win for it considerable distinction as the forerunner of real national Russian opera, which began most auspiciously with Glinka's 'Ruslan and Ludmila (1842), his masterpiece, which at once raised the status of Russian music as the equal of any in the world. This great national