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SANTORIN, sän-tō-ren', THERA, CALLISTE, Greece, the largest of one of the island groups in the Egean Archipelago, 60 miles north of Crete. It has an area of 27 square miles. The eastern slope is covered with vineyards; the western shores are precipitous, with deep ravines and volcanic indications. The town occupies the lofty heights overlooking precipices. The wines of the island are the chief staple and are called vino-brusco and vino-santo. Various eruptions have occurred in the vicinity which from time to time have changed the surrounding topography. There are practically no trees and the water supply often fails, it becoming necessary to procure fresh water from neighboring islands. There are many ancient remains, and excavations have brought to light numerous inscriptions of the Mycene and early periods. Pop. 19,597. Consult von Gaertringen, Hiller et alia, Thera, Untersuchungen, Vermessungen und Ausgrabungen in den Jahren 1895-98) (Vols. I-IV, Berlin 1899-1902); and 'Inscriptiones Græcæ Insularum Maris Egæi (Vol. II, ib., 1898).

SANTOS, sän'toos, Brazil, city in the state of São Paulo, on the Atlantic Coast, 200 miles southwest of Rio de Janeiro and 45 miles from the city of São Paulo. The immense export and import trade of the interior region which it serves has made it the second port of the republic, the total value of its trade reaching about $251,000,000 annually. The harbor is accessible to the largest vessels. Santos is the largest coffee exporting port in the world, being the outlet for the great coffee-producing parendas of São Paulo. Coffee to the value of about $65,000,000 is shipped annually from this port to the United States. The annual export of coffee to all countries from this port has averaged over $120,000,000 for the last 12 years. The chief exports from Santos to foreign countries in 1915 were coffee, valued at $113,424,679; hides, $539,275; cacao, $289,340; bran. $69,754; and tobacco, $24,254. Exports to the United States in the same year totaled $63,055,465, of which coffee represented $62,431,991; hides, $318,817; and cacao, $292,500. Frozen meat is fast becoming an important export, the value now exceeding $2,000,000 annually, Great Britain, Italy and the United States being the chief purchasers. Bananas now rank third in the list of exports, being valued at $500,000 annually and going to Argentina. Santos is situated on an island, protected from the ocean by a larger island, with a channel six miles long between the two. A sea-wall three miles long has been constructed on the side of the city. This made possible the reclaiming of much pestilential and malariabreeding swamp land, and the city's healthfulness has been greatly benefited in consequence, yellow fever being no longer endemic. The city is well built, has many fine streets and boulevards. Churches crown the heights of Monserrate. There are several monasteries, a city hall, custom-house, two hospitals, an arsenal, banks, electric-lighting plants, electric street railways, gas system and modern water-supply system. A railway connects the city with São Paulo and the interior. Pop. 90,000. Consult

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Rines, G. E., and Wilcox, M. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Latin America' (New York 1917).

SANTOS, sän'tzoz, Francisco, Spanish writer: b. in the first half of the 17th century in Madrid; d. about 1700. He published, between 1663 and 1697, 16 volumes, principally of short stories, intended, as the author professes, for popular amusement. 'Dia y noche en Madrid, the first of this series, contains many excellent and startlingly graphical pictures of life in the capital of Spain. Perequillo, el de las guallineras' (Madrid 1668), a story written in opposition to the picaresque novels still extensively read in his day, was also popular and is still read in Spain. "Verdad en el potro y el Cid resuscitado' (Madrid 1679) is of interest on account of the songs and popular ballads it contains, many of which date back to an early period of Spanish literature, and some of which differ from all other known versions. Among his other popular stories are El diablo anda suelto (Madrid 1677); 'El vivo y el defunto' (Madrid 1692); (Tarascas de Madrid y tribunal espantoso (Valencia 1694); and 'Los Gigantones de Madrid.' Few of Santos' stories now appear in their original form because the literary taste of the Spanish people has changed since his day; but they have been recast by other authors and the ideas contained in many of them have been made use of by some of his successors in the literary field. Consult any good history of Spanish literature.

SANTOS CHOCANO, zho'kän-o, José, Peruvian poet: b. 1875. Since the death of Rubén Darío (q.v.) in 1916, Santos Chocano has been the undisputed leader of Latin American literature; and even before the disappearance of the latter from the scene, Santos Chocano had become a figure at least equal in importance with him on the literary horizon. He influenced Darío strongly and for the better, by enlarging his view and making him, in his latter years, more cosmopolitan. It was through Santos Chocano that Darío was led to see the United States and the American people with other and more favorable eyes. Endowed with a broad vision, he threw behind him, early in his career, all sectionalism and local views, which had hampered most of the preceding Latin American poets and prose writers, and announced himself the apostle of cosmopolitanism and Pan-Americanism. At a time when other younger poets like Rubino Blanco Fombona of Venezuela made it their special business to vilify the United States and all things American and to hold her people up to ridicule as uncouth, uncultured, rude dollargrabbers, overbearing and unbearable, Santos Chocano proclaimed himself the singer of America in all its varying moods and phases, past and present. He sang, 'My lyre has a soul, my song an ideal. The sound of his lyre was America; the ideal of his song the unity and harmony of all things American. In his 'El Canto del Porvenir) (Song of the Future) he sees the spiritual union of the North and the South, of the Latin and the Saxon. He believes the one is necessary to the other, and that they have been placed together in the Western world for a purpose. Santos Chocano has the truest vision of all the Latin American writers; and his influence, which has

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become very widely extended, has been generally exercised for good. His Alma America,' in which he emphasizes the idea of race unity on the Western continent, is a stirring poem which became immensely popular and exercised a strong influence on the younger poets of Latin America. Santos Chocano has become, in a sense, the leader of a new school of poetical thought, whose self-imposed task is to sing the beauties and glories of America. Though united through this ideal, the members of this school use widely different literary methods to attain their ends; and some of them are not broad minded enough to see beyond the boundaries of Latin America. Yet all of them can sing with him: "When I feel myself an Inca, I render homage to the Sun which gave me the sceptre of royal power; when I feel my Spanish blood, I evoke Colonial days." Santos Chocano has traveled much and has found a warm welcome in nearly all the Latin American countries. Some years ago he was lionized in Mexico City, and the Central American_nations have paid high tribute to his genius. Consult Coester, A., The Literary History of Spanish America) (New York 1916); González Blanco, Andrés, 'Select Poems of José Santos Chocano' (Introduction to 'Fiat Lux,' Paris 1908).

SANTOS-DUMONT, dö-môn, Alberto, Brazilian aeronaut: b. São Paulo, Brazil, 20 July 1873. He was educated chiefly in France, and has resided in Paris since the death of his father, a coffee planter. Having experimented in aeronautics he made an ascent on 4 July 1898 from the Jardin d'Acclimation, Paris, in a spherical balloon 18 feet in diameter. At this time he was engaged upon the construction of a dirigible balloon which he completed so as to make the trial ascent on 20 September. It proved itself dirigible, but the experiment ended in disaster owing to the insufficiency of the air-pump. A second and a third machine were constructed, the latter being cigar-shaped, 66 feet long and 111⁄2 feet in greatest diameter. It carried a four and one-half horse-power petroleum motor to work a five-foot propeller making 2,500 revolutions a minute. It was steered by a rudder of silk and bamboo having. an area of about 25 feet. This machine ascended from Vaugirard, 13 Oct. 1899, sailed to the Champs de Mars, encircled the Eiffel Tower several times, proceeded to Auteuil_and finally landed at the manoeuvre grounds at Bagatelle. He continued experiments with new balloons, and on 18 Aug. 1901 his balloon collapsed and fell to the roof of the Trocadero Hotel. On 19 Oct. 1901 he won the Henri Deutsche prize of $50,000 offered for a trip from the Aero Club at Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back to the point of departure in less than an hour. The actual time employed was 29 minutes and 30 seconds, the return being made against a strong wind. In 1902 he went to Monte Carlo with the design of crossing the Mediterranean and after making several ascents suffered an accident which precipitated himself and his balloon into the Bay of Monaco. In 1904 he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor and five years later became officer. See AERONAUTICS, HISTORY OF -The Dirigible; and consult Mr. SantosDumont's My Airships) (New York 1904).

SANUTO (sän'oo-tō), or SANUDO, Marin, THE ELDER, of Torcello, Venetian statesman, traveler and geographer: b. Venice, about 1260; d. 1330-38. He traveled widely, knew the coasts and much of the interior of westcrn, central and southern Europe, northern and eastern Africa, and southern and western Asia. He used his vast knowledge of geography and the trade routes of the world in an effort to reawaken the crusading spirit. To further the plan he wrote in 1303-07 his 'Liber secretorum fidelium super Terræ Sanctæ recuperatione' (Hanover 1611; Eng. trans., London 1896). This he presented to Pope Clement V; and in 1312-21 he was engaged upon two supplementary volumes, which when completed were presented with their predecessor to Pope John XXII, together with maps of the world and of Palestine, as well as the cities of Antioch and Acre, and charts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas and the West European coasts. The maps were probably the work of Fietro Vesconte, and on the whole compare favorably with modern maps. The books contain definite plans for the conquest of Palestine, displaying an extensive knowledge of the customs, wealth, extent and population of the countries described. There are 23 manuscript copies of the 'Secreta' in existence, of which the most important are those in the Riccardian Library, Florence; the British Museum, London; and the Paris National Library.

SANUTO, or SANUDO, Marin, THE YOUNGER, Venetian senator, historian and traveler: b. Venice, 22 May 1466; d. 1533. He was of patrician birth, and at the age of 17 went on a journey through Istria and the mainland provinces. He sought famous people,

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places of interest and libraries wherever he went, copied inscriptions and made a careful and exhaustive record of his observations and experiences. Because of his exceptional ability he was elected to the Maggior Consiglio at the age of 20, five years less than the legal age, and in 1598 he became a senator. His diaries begin 1 Jan. 1496 and continue until September 1533, covering the proceedings of the legislative bodies in which he served and giving an exhaustive record of his experiences and associations during that period, filling 58 volumes. He was permitted to examine the secret archives of the state, and his friendships inIcluded the most famous and learned men of his time; so that his minute and accurate records, governed by his broad learning and rich associations, are of great value and undisputed authority. He collected a splendid library, including foreign as well as Venetian manuscripts, his activities generally fitting him for the post of historian to the republic, an appointment he greatly desired. This, however, twice passed to others, but Sanuto's services as a historian were eventually recognized by the republic through a yearly pension of 150 gold ducats. He was author of 'Itinario in terre ferma (London 1847); I Commentarii della guerra di Ferrara (Venice 1829); Le Vite dei Dogi' (in Muratori's Rerum Italiacarum Scriptores, (Vol. XXII, 1828); and the 'Diarii' (Venice 1872-1903).

SÃO FRANCISCO, sän frän-sēs'kō, a river of Brazil, which rises in the Serra da Canastra, in the southwest of the state of

SÃO JOÃO DA BARRA — SAÔNE

Minas Geraes, flows north-northeast through that state and the state of Bahia, then turning east forms the boundary between the states of Pernambuco and Alagoas on the north and Bahia and Sergipe on the south. It falls into the Atlantic 50 miles north-northeast of the town of Sergipe by two mouths, one to the north, called Aricari, so shallow as to be scarcely navigable even by canoes; and the other to the south, hence called Francisco do Sul, much larger and deeper, but unfortunately encumbered at its mouth by a large bar about six miles broad, covered with a heavy surf, and with seldom more than four feet of water on it. It is a large and majestic river, with a course which has been estimated at 1,600 miles, but, in addition to the bar at its mouth, has numerous rapids and cataracts, which make its continuous navigation impossible; those at Paulo Affonço, about 190 miles inland, are about 60 miles in length. Its principal affluents are, on the right, the Paraopeba, Guacuhi or Velhas, Jequitahi and Verde; and on the left the Andaia, Borrachudo, Ábaité, Paracatu, Urucaia, Carinenha, Correntes and Grande. Railroads have been built around some of the rapids and in conjunction with inland steamers on the river afford continuous communication for about 1,000 miles.

SÃO JOÃO DA BARRA, sän zhō-oon' dä bär'rä, or SÃO JOÃO DA PARAHYBA, Brazil, a town on the Atlantic Coast of the state of Rio de Janeiro, at the northern end of the state. It is the port of Campos, with which it has railroad connection. But since Campos became connected by rail with Rio de Janeiro, São João has lost its importance, as the port is only an open roadstead. Pop. 5,000.

SÃO JOÃO DEL REY, děl rā'ē, Brazil, a town in the state of Minas Geraes, situated 75 miles southwest of Ouro Preto, on the railroad running west from Barbacena. It was founded as a gold-mining town, but the gold has been exhausted, and the chief wealth of the town now comes from cattle raising and the manufacture of cloth and leather. Pop. 10,000.

The

SÃO LEOPOLDO, lã-oo-pol'do, Brazil, a town in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, situated on the railroad 18 miles north of Porto Alegre. The town has two churches, a Jesuit college and two high schools. It has had a considerable industrial and commercial development. Agriculture, viticulture and cattle-raising are carried on successfully in the surrounding country, and the town manufactures leather-goods. products of the town have amounted to over $6,000,000 annually, most of them going to Porto Alegre, which, besides the railroad connection, can be reached by steamboats on the Rio dos Sinos. The town was founded by German immigrants in 1824, and most of the inhabitants are still Germans. It was almost totally_destroyed during the civil war of 1846. Pop. 7,500.

SÃO LUIZ DE MARANHAO, loo-ēzh då må ran yän. See MARANHÃO.

SÃO PAULO, pow'loo, a state of Brazil, bounded on the north and northeast by Minas Geraes and Rio de Janeiro, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean and Paraná, and on the west by Matto Grosso. Area, 112,307 square miles, including a large section of fertile

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but unsettled land near the Paraná River, which forms part of the western boundary. The principal mountains are between the capital of the state and Santos, Serra do Mar (average height about 3,000 feet); and, toward the interior, spurs of the Mantequeira range. Adjoining the coast is a comparatively narrow strip or zone, low-lying and tropical in its characteristics; but an abrupt ascent leads from this to the plateau which extends westward to the Paraná, sometimes cut by the valleys of the river system, sometimes rough and mountainous, but in general maintaining_an_altitude which ensures a temperate climate. In fact, the winters in the southern part of the state are decidedly cold, frosts occurring many times during a single season; and at the capital the temperature Occasionally falls below 32° F. The fertile red soil of the plateau is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of coffee. The railway system of this state, with that of the neighboring Rio de Janeiro (q.v.), is the best in Brazil. A notable piece of engineering is seen on the line which crosses the Cubatão range at a height of more than 2,500 feet. The principal cities are the capital, São Paulo (founded by the Jesuits in 1552, became a city in 1712, created a bishopric in 1746) and the leading port, Santos. The Bulletin of the Pan American Union, April 1919, notes that the population of the city of São Paulo, which in 1900 was 239,820, at the end of 1918 had reached 504,278-an increase of 115 per cent in eighteen years. In 1900 there were 22,407 buildings in the city, valued at 33,306 paper contos (one conto, paper $270 U. S. gold). In 1918 fully 55,356 buildings were reported, valued at 89,456 contos. Santos (1919 est. 80,000) is built on an island, a narrow channel separating it from the mainland. Its harbor and general sanitary conditions have been improved by important works. It is not only the shipping centre of the State of São Paulo but also ranks as the largest entrepôt of coffee in the world. Two of the main causes of the prosperity of this state which is generally regarded as the most progressive part of Brazil -are successful agriculture, undertakings to improve the means of communication, and immigration. For description of the coffee industry, cattleraising, etc., in this state, see BRAZIL AGRICULTURE AND FOREST PRODUCTS.

MARRION WILCOX. SÃO THOMÉ, tō-mā', or SAINT THOMAS, Africa, an island in the Gulf of Guinea belonging to Portugal, and situated a little north of the equator in long. 6° 30′ E., 150 miles northwest of Cape Lopez. Its area is 358 square miles. The whole island consists of a volcanic mountain 7,026 feet high, and heavily forested. The climate is equable, temperate and healthful, and the soil is very fertile. chief products are coffee, cocoa, oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, pine-apples, vanilla, cinnamon, india-rubber, cinchona, etc. The exports are valued at over $10,000,000 annually. Pop. 53,969. There are nine miles of railway in operation. São Thomé forms, with the neighboring island of Principe, a Portuguese province. The capital is Cidade, with a safe harbor and a pop. of 3,000.

The

SAÔNE, sōn (ancient, ARAR), France, a river which rises at Viomenil, in the department of Vosges, flows southwest through that depart

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ment, traverses the department of Haute-Saône, and on entering the department of Côte-d'Or, receives the Ognon. Continuing a southwest course, past Auxonne, it receives its most important tributary, the Doubs. It flows past Châlons and Maçon to Lyons, where it joins the Rhone after a course of about 280 miles; of these 190 miles are navigable. The Canal du Centre, Canal de Bourgogne and Rhone and Rhine Canal, bring it into communication with the Loire, Seine, Meuse, Moselle and Rhine.

SAOSHYANT. See SOSIOSH.

SAP, the fluid which circulates in plants, and consists of water carrying various nutritive salts in solution. This water and its contents, "crude sap," so-called, is absorbed by root-hairs and permeates the plant, passing through the woody portions of the vascular bundles, in the newer rings of the "sap-wood," which, in dicotyledons, constitutes a woody cylinder_between the bark and the heart-wood or pith. This sap, by some process which is not fully understood, but which is ascribed to root-pressure, transpiration, or suction, severally or collectively, carries its raw materials to the chlorophyll granules in the green, growing parts of the plant, where they are metamorphosed into organic substances, and are again taken away through the vast cells to those places where they are needed for the life or propagation of the plant, or are stored for future use. Maple and corn sugar, india-rubber, opium and the milk of certain plants are all saps, and the products of the lactiferous cells. Many plants, such as cacti and others, living in desert regions, store away water to carry them through the droughts, a fact which is taken advantage of by travelers in thirsty lands.

SAP-GREEN, a yellowish-green pigment which is prepared by mixing the purplish-red juice expressed from the ripe berries of buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus) with an alkali. The liquid is fermented, evaporated until it has reached a proper consistency, and then suspended in bladders, to harden into a brittle mass. The color is used by water-color painters, paperstainers and leather-dyers, but is very fugitive.

SAPAJOU, or SAJOU, a French adaptation of an Indian word, and now applied to several species of American monkeys of the family Cebida. The sapajous live in flocks in the forests of Brazil, Peru, Guiana, Colombia and Venezuela, and possess tails of feebly prehensile powers, and feed on fruits, eggs, small birds, etc. They are familiar in habits, become soon domesticated, and are thus in favor among mountebanks, etc., who teach these monkeys to become very expert in performing tricks. Common species of sapajous are the sai (Cebus capucinus) and white-throated sapajou or sajou (C. hypoleucos).

SAPAN, or SAPPAN-WOOD, red dyewoods, obtained from two genera of the Leguminose, but principally from Casalpinia sappan. This tree is indigenous to tropical Asia and to the Indian Archipelago, but since it gives a good, red dye, similar to that of Brazil-wood, although somewhat difficult to fix, its cultivation is promoted in the West Indies and Brazil.

SAPHO. Of Daudet's 'Parisian Dramas' the most widely read and most intensely poig

nant is Sapho (1884). Though Edmond de Goncourt pronounced it the author's "most complete, most humane, and most beautiful story," it owed its popularity not alone to its literary merits, which are very great, but also in part to the fact that it dealt with a phase of life that has often a morbid interest for those who, from whatever cause, are precluded from experience of it. The book is dedicated significantly "To my sons when they are twenty," to be to them a warning of the perils, spiritual and material, that encompass every attempt to set up domestic life outside of legitimate marriage. Gaussin, a youth of rich promise but weak will, is betrayed by the very generosity of his eager passion into a connection with Fanny Legrand, a woman who lives by and for sex and knows no law or love but the satisfaction of her animal desire, while she clings to Gaussin with the desperation of a last passion. How through the years of this union Gaussin's young ideals, family connections, material prospects, mental powers, moral character were sacrificed, blighted and betrayed; how he was tortured in turn by jealousy and desire, clung yet shrank, rejected, married another and returned to his degradation, only to find his utter sacrifice uncomprehended, because to such as she incomprehensible all this is shown with relentless psychoanalysis and undeviating seriousness of purpose. No lighter touches relieve the development of the inevitable tragedy, finely allegorized in an unforgettable opening scene, where the ardent young student carries his new-won mistress up the long stairs to his dwelling, first a light burden, gaily borne, then from landing to landing ever heavier, till it bears him down in utter exhaustion at the end. Consult translations by Ives, G. B., Rogerson, T. F. and others.

BENJAMIN W. Wells. SAPI-UTAN, a small wild ox of Celebes. See ANOA.

SAPINDACEAE, săp-in-da'sē-ē, a family closely allied to the maples, and containing the soap-berry (Sapindus), litchi-nut (Nephelium), and other genera. The species are usually tall trees or vines with watery juice. The leaves are generally compound, and alternate, evergreen and abruptly pinnate. The flowers are small, but often showy sometimes apetalous, sometimes with four or five unequal and imbricated petals, and about the same number of sepals; the stamens are eight, and are situated on a disc; the ovary is 3-celled, becoming in fruit capsular or indehiscent, or composed of several wing fruits, or a drupe, or nut, or berry. The species are mostly found in warm countries. The fruits of several, such as the Nephelium, are eaten, but the leaves of many are poisonous. The typical genus Sapindus has a very saponaceous fruit, used in the place of soap. In Brazil, a paste called "guarana" is made from the pounded seeds of the sapindaceous climbing shrub, Paullinia cupana, and serves for food, for medicine (since it contains caffeine), and for the preparation of a refreshing drink.

SAPODILLA, or SAPODILLA PLUM, an evergreen tree (Achias sapota) some 20 feet high with thick, shining leaves, clustered at the ends of the branches and a milky juice. It is sometimes called bully-tree, also, and is indigenous to tropical America, where it is

SAPONIN-SAPPHO

often cultivated for its fruit which in the West Indies is sometimes called naseberry. The flowers are small and whitish and the sapodilla, the fruit, resembles a russet apple in color and size and has a milky acrid juice, which disappears when over-ripe, leaving the fruit in a sugary condition and with a pleasant, pear-like flavor. It is a valuable food in warm countries. The seeds are large and black and used as an aperient and diuretic. The juice of the sapodilla is made into chewing-gum, the bark is astringent, and employed as a febrifuge (Jamaica bark), and the wood is reddish-brown, hard, heavy and durable.

SAPONIN, a glucoside contained in the roots of Saponaria officinalis or soapwort and many other plants; also in the fruit of the horse-chestnut, in quillai-bark or soap-bark, etc. By means of boiling alcohol it is readily extracted from the root of soapwort, the alcohol, as it cools, depositing the saponin as an amorphous sediment. It derives its name from its behavior with water, in which it is soluble in all proportions, yielding an opalescent fluid which froths when shaken like a solution of soap, if even one one-thousandth part of saponin be present. Its solution, or an infusion of soapwort, is sometimes employed in place of a solution of an alkaline soap for cleansing the finer varieties of wool from grease. Many preparations for cleaning kid gloves, etc., derive their virtues from saponin.

SAPOTACEÆ, săp-o-tā sē-e, a large genus of trees and shrubs of the heath tribe, indigenous chiefly to the tropics and principally to the tropical islands. The leaves are entire, alternate and leathery, with flowers clustered in the axils of the leaves, or at the older stem-nodes. The flowers are regular, bisexual, with stamens borne on the corolla, as many, or twice as many, as its lobes; the calyx-lobes are rigid and obtuse, and longer than the corolla-tubes; the fruits are baccate. The Sapotacea have a milky juice which furnishes true gutta-percha (q.v.). The sapodilla and star apple of the West Indies are fruits produced by this family. The genus Bassia contains species valuable for the oils which they yield and the seeds of Mimusops elengi also yield oil abundantly. The sapotads are natives chiefly of tropical India, Africa and America; known genera 21, species 212. Consult Gray, School and Field Book of Botany) (1875).

SAPPAN-WOOD. See BRAZIL-WOOD.

SAPPHIRE, a mineralogical name including all highly colored and transparent varieties of corundum (q.v.), except the red, which is called ruby, an exception confined chiefly to jewelers. Sapphire corundum occurs in three forms as small, distinct crystals, hexagonal or rhombohedral in various modifications; as transparent portions of ordinary corundum; and at times as nodules or small rounded masses enclosed in ordinary corundum, though distinct. Most gem sapphires are of the first kind; but some fine stones have been cut from material of the two latter kinds, especially in the corundum workings in North Carolina, notably the Culsagee mine in Macon County. Sapphires present almost every variety of color, although blue is the most familiar, deep shades being most valued. Other blue gems occasionally seen

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are blue tourmaline (called Brazilian sapphire), cyanite and iolite, which is known somewhat as water-sapphire. True sapphires are, however, easily distinguished by their greater hardness (9), and density (3.95 to 4.1). The main sources of sapphire are Ceylon, Cashmere and the Pailin district of Siam, also the Anakie district of Queensland, Australia. In the United States, sapphires are obtained chiefly in Montana; first from the "bars" or low bluffs, of gold-bearing gravel, along the Upper Missouri River, east of Helena and later from a decomposed igneous dike_at Yogo Gulch, in Fergus County; also at Rock Creek, Granite County and Dry Cottonwood Creek, Deer Lodge County. The river bars and Rock Creek yield a great variety of rich and delicate colors, as in Queensland, but Yogo Gulch furnishes the deep blue shades most valued and is being worked very extensively. Small and poorly colored stones are largely sold for watchjewels. All blue and green sapphires, like rubies, possess marked dichroism, a point important to the lapidary, as the tint of gems from such crystals depends upon the direction in which they are cut. In biblical history the sapphire was a stone of an azure color (Exod. xxiv, 10) and very precious (Job xxviii, 16). It was the second stone in the second row of the high priest's breastplate, which is now believed to have been the lapis lazuli, and not the modern sapphire, as doubtless was also the stone mentioned in Rev. xxi, 19. Among the Greeks the sapphire was sacred to Jupiter. See PRECIOUS STONES.

SAPPHO, să f'o, Greek poetess: b. Mitylene, or Eresus, Island of Lesbos. She was the greatest of ancient poets of her sex and flourished between 630 and 570 B.C., being a younger contemporary of Alcæus. Little is known certainly of the events of her life. On account of political commotions she left Lesbos for Sicily. But in later years she returned to Mitylene where she became the centre of a female coterie, a school of poetry of which the famous Erinna was a member. She was the author of various poems; hymns, odes, elegies, epigrams of which only two complete pieces, an ode To Aphrodite' and 'To a Maiden,' together with some fragments, have come down to us; these display intense feeling, glowing imagination and a high finish. One of them is quoted in full by Longinus in his treatise 'On the Sublime. She is said to have invented several metres; at least one still bears her name and has been used by such ancient poets as Horace and such modern ones as Canning in his 'Needy Knife-grinder.' There is an edition of the extant fragments with translations and memoir by H. T. Wharton (3d ed., Chicago 1895). Ancient papyri have recently brought other fragments of Sappho's verse to light. Consult Bergk, 'Poetæ Lyric' (Vol. III, Leipzig 1914); Edmonds, J. M., (in Classical Review, Vol. XXII, Vol. XXVIII, London 1909 and 1914); Classical Quarterly (Vol. III, ib. 1909); Hunk, A. S. (in Classical Studies, Vol. IX, p. 39, ib. 1915) Brandt, P., (Sappho (Leipzig 1905); Christ-Schmid, 'Geschichte der Griechischen Literatur) (6th ed., Munich 1912); Farnell, G. S., Greek Lyric Poetry (London 1891); Wright, W. C. 'Short History of Greek Literature' (New York 1907).

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