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SAPPHO. Following the success of his first great tragedy of Fate, 'Die Ahnfrau,' which was written in 16 days, Franz Grillparzer wrote a second poetic drama (Sappho (1819), also composed at white heat and resembling 'Die Ahnfrau in the general character of its poetry although differing from it in form and spirit. In its conception it is half way between the tragedy of fate and the modern tragedy of character; in its form, too, it is half way between the classical and the modern. Out of the slight tradition which tells how Sappho, one of the greatest poets of her age, threw herself from the high Lesbian cliffs into the sea when she found her love for the youth Phaon unrequited and her own handmaiden preferred, Grillparzer has made a stirring drama, with an acting quality strong enough to carry it to success on the stage when well performed. At the same time he has developed a poetic symbolism in the story, and the conflict between the spiritually gifted Sappho and the beautiful Melitta becomes, in Grillparzer's hands, the conflict between art and the pleasures of life. Although the verse has neither the dignity nor the sheer beauty of some of Grillparzer's later work, notably 'Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen,' it has the cumulative quality which often accompanies verse written in long stretches at a single sitting, a quality which does not detract from its distinctly dramatic value. Through the dignity and the success of his early dramas Grillparzer forged the link that bound the drama of Austria definitely to the literature of Germany. EDITH J. R. ISAACS.

SAPPHO'S LEAP. See CAPE DUCATO.
SAPRÆMIA. See BLOOD-POISONING.
SAPROLEGNIACEÆ. See FUNGI

Water Molds.

SAPROPHYTES, a class of plants living on the carbonic compounds resulting from the decay of organic life. They sometimes contain chlorophyll, but generally do not, and since organs of assimilation are therefore not necessary, the leaves in many kinds are reduced to mere scales. This habit of existing only on decaying organisms makes the higher saprophytic plants very difficult to transplant. Algæ are often saprophytes, making use of the decaying refuse of the sea; and fungi, especially the molds and dung-loving genera as Splachnum, are the most generally known cryptogams acting as scavengers in this manner. Even the globular alga, the "red snow" (Sphærella nivalis), exists on the corpses of insects, pollen-grains and other decaying materials drifting across the snow. Certain other saprophytes attach themselves to the bark of trees, not to suck the juices of the host in the manner of parasites, but to subsist on the decaying bark and on the organic dust and material in solution washed down by the rain and stopped by the projecting mass of the plants. Many saprophytic plants living in the cracks of rocks have only the humus collected in tiny pockets and the supply of dissolved organic matters in percolating water, to draw upon. Some orchids, as the coral-roots (Corallorhiza), that have no true roots, but a thinskinned rootstock, which absorbs nutriment directly; the familiar Indian pipes (Mono

tropa) and others spring from the humus of decaying leaves, in close connection with the hyphæ of fungi. The meadow pastures support such saprophytes as the true mushroom (Agaricus campestris), the moonwort (Botrychium lunaria) and the blue and violet flowered gentians. These micro-organisms, non-virulent and always present in animal intestines, may in certain conditions become virulent poisons. See BOTANY; FUNGI.

SAPSUCKER, the popular American name of several small woodpeckers, but properly restricted to the yellow-bellied woodpecker (Sphyrapicus varius), an Eastern species represented in the Rocky Mountain region by variety nuchalis and along the Pacific Coast by variety ruber. This woodpecker is of moderate size; is black and whitish above; black on breast; rump black and white mixed; belly more or less yellowish; sides streaked with dusky; crown red in the adult; chin scarlet and throat black in the male, but both white in the female. This bird illustrates well the curious tendency toward increase of red in plumage toward the Pacific Coast. In variety nuchalis, the nuchal band is red instead of brown, extending the chin red by so much; in specimens from Nevada, the scarlet area is still larger; and in the Coast form (ruber) the whole head, neck and breast are red, sometimes obliterating the normal pattern. This woodpecker is migratory, spending its summers and breeding only in the cooler parts of the United States and northward, and going South in midwinter. Its habits differ from those of other woodpeckers mainly in its custom of drilling a great number of holes in the bark of trees, to get at and eat the new wood and sugary sap lying beneath it. In many cases serious harm is done to fruit trees by the great number of chains of holes so bored, although many harmful insects are also devoured. See WOODPECKERS, and consult authorities cited thereunder.

SAPUCAIA (săp-oo-kia) or PARADISE NUTS, the seeds of Lacythis zabucayo, or sometimes those of L. ollaria, belonging to the Myrtacea and closely allied to the Brazil nut. The trees, often 75 feet high, grow abundantly in the northern part of South America. The nuts which have a sweet almond-like flavor are more wholesome than Brazil nuts. They are about two inches long and an inch thick, with a corky shell furrowed lengthwise, and are found in hard urnshaped fruits, six inches across and with a woody wall half an inch thick. These curious, very hard capsules, have lids which fit closely, but fall off when quite ripe. Like the fruits of other members of the genus they are called monkey-pots, perhaps not only on account of their shape, but because monkeys are said to be very fond of the seeds, which are scarce for this reason. An edible and soap-making oil, which soon grows rancid, is expressed from sapucaia nuts.

SAPULPA, sa-púl'uȧ, Okla., city and county-seat of Creek County, 102 miles northeast of Oklahoma City, on the Saint Louis and San Francisco Railroad. It is the centre of a region producing oil and natural gas in great quantities and of a rich agricultural region. It has oil refineries, railroad repair shops, glass plants, cotton gins, machine shops and

SARA-SARATOGA, BATTLES OF

manufactories of bricks, candy, cigars, ice, oilwell supplies, etc. The city has 10 miles of paved streets, a large passenger railroad station, modern electric light and power plant, an electric street and interurban railway, a watersupply system owned by the city, storm and sanitary sewer system, several churches of the principal religious denominations, fine high school building, four ward schools, manual training and domestic science building, Colored Baptist College and district school, and the Euchee Indian Mission. There are four banks with over $4,000,000 on deposit and two daily and three weekly newspapers. The freight receipts, an index of the city's manufacturing strength, average $3,000,000 annually. Pop. (1920) 11,634.

SARA, sa'ra, Philippines, pueblo, province of Iloilo, Panay; in the district of Concepción, two miles northwest of the town of Concepción. Pop. 11,300.

SARABAND, a dance, said to be derived from the Saracens. Its character is grave and expressive. It originated in Spain, where it was formerly danced to the castanets. Handel, Bach and other masters frequently wrote tunes of this description for the harpsichord or clavichord. It became popular in Europe in the 16th century, but was prohibited for a time in Spain because of its indecency. The name is used now to denote a musical composition written for the saraband.

SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. MOHAMMEDAN ART.

See

SARACENS, săr'a-sënz, a people mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus as inhabiting the northern district of Arabia Felix. At the period of the Crusades the term was employed to designate all infidel nations, against which crusades were preached; and in course of time it became the generic name of all the Arabian tribes who embraced Mohammedanism and extended their conquests in Asia and Africa.

SARAGOSSA, săr-a-gos'ą, Maid of, Spanish heroine d. Ceuta, Spain, 1857. Her name was Augustina and she was a vivandière in the Spanish army. During the siege of Saragossa (1808-09) she distinguished herself on several occasions in battle and was made a sub-lieutenant. Her praises are sung by Byron in 'Childe Harold, canto i, 54-56.

SARAGOSSA, or ZARAGOZA, thä-rägo' thä (ancient CESAR-AUGUSTA), Spain, (1) Capital of a province of its own name and of the ancient kingdom of Aragon, situated on the river Ebro, in a fertile plain, 174 miles northeast of Madrid. The town is highly picturesque with its forest of towers, cupolas and spires, the houses of solid masonry highly ornamented, a city of castles and palaces. Many of the chief buildings were destroyed by the French invaders. Others deserving notice are the exchange (1551); the Torre Nuevo; the old citadel, Aljaperia, built by the Moors; hospitals, numerous churches and charitable institutions, town-house, new university, schools of medicine, theology, etc., many monastic institutions, theatre, bath, museum, bull-ring and botanical gardens and promenades. Agriculture is the principal occupation of the inhabitants and the industries include machinery and iron foundries, tanneries, carriages, pre

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serves, breweries, glass, candles, soap, liqueurs, distilleries and porcelain. Some of the articles referred to are imported besides rice, dried cod, bar-iron, timber and dye-stuffs. The exports consist chiefly of chocolate, paper, cast iron, wool, hats, dyed silks, soap and especially wheat and flour mainly to Catalonia. Saragossa was the salduba of the Celt-Iberians, but the walls are all that remain of the ancient city. It renounced paganism at an early period and Aulus Prudentius, the first Christian poet, was born here in 348 A.D. It suffered from various wars, and in 1808 sustained two memorable sieges, costing 60,000 lives, but finally capitulated to the French.

(2) The province of Saragossa contains 6,607 square miles. The highest elevation is 7,700 feet. On the northwest are the spurs of the Pyrenees. The Ebro, Jalon, Huerva, Aguas, Arva and Gallego and part of the Aragon are the chief streams. The lower mountain slopes are covered by forests. The soil in the plains is fertile, producing wheat and other cercals, flax, hemp, oil, wine, etc. Silkworms are reared, sheep are bred. The growing industries include paper, leather, soap, brandies, liqueurs, machinery, various kinds of carriages, railway material, pianos, beds, glass, bronze, chocolate, jams, woolen and linen goods and foundries. Several railways and a canal connecting the Atlantic and Mediterranean are the chief ways of communication. Pop. about 433,000.

SARAH (Heb. "Princess"), the daughter of Terah, half sister and wife of Abraham, who in her 90th year bore to him a son, Isaac, according to the promise of God. She died in Hebron at the age of 127 years. See ABRA

HAM.

SARANAC (săr'a-năk) LAKE, N. Y., village in Franklin and Essex counties, on Lake Saranac, and on a branch of the New York Central and Hudson River and the Chateaugay railroads, about 70 miles south by east of Malone. The village is in a part of the Adirondack region noted for its healthfulness and the beauty of the scenery. The hunter and lumberman settled here in 1860-70, but the railroad brought the health and pleasure seekers in great numbers. In the vicinity are the Trudeau and the Gabriel sanatoria for consumptive patients. The principal public buildings are the hotels, the churches and the schools. The government is vested in a village president and a board of trustees. Pop. 5,174.

SARATOGA, The, a former wooden sailing ship of the United States navy; displacement, 1,025 tons. Sailing ships of this class are fast disappearing from the navies of the world, but for training the young apprentice into an able-bodied man-o'-war's man there is no better school.

SARATOGA, Battles of, two battles of the American Revolution, called also the battles of Bemis' Heights, or of Stillwater, fought on ground about 12 miles east of Saratoga Springs and near the Hudson River. Both battles were fought under the same officers, the Americans being commanded by Horatio Gates (q.v.), who was ably served by Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan (qq.v.), and the British by John Burgoyne (q.v.). The first battle, 19

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Sept. 1777, was indecisive. Burgoyne, having crossed the Hudson on the 13th and 14th, and encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga, confronted Gates' army on Bemis' Heights at Stillwater, which the Americans had strongly fortified. About 4 P.M. on the 19th the American left wing, under Arnold, was attacked by Burgoyne's right. The engagement lasted until dark, and both sides claimed the victory. The British held the field, but Burgoyne had failed in his attempt to flank the American position. The British loss was more than 500 men, while that of the Americans was under 400. Burgoyne, whose communications with Canada were cut off, was now placed in peril through the capture of his supply-boats by Lincoln in his rear. Having reason, however, to expect that Sir Henry Clinton would come up the Hudson to his assistance, he fortified his position and waited. But in view of the nonarrival of Clinton, of the shortness of his own supplies, and of the difficulty of retreat, Burgoyne was forced to risk another battle. Advancing, 7 October, with 1,500 men and six pieces of artillery, he was attacked on the right by Morgan's riflemen and a New Hampshire brigade, while Arnold, without orders, and in defiance of Gates, pressed to the front and assumed actual command of the Americans, leading them in a determined assault upon the British lines. The Americans were reinforced at the critical moment, the British again and again gave way, and the battle ended in their retreat with loss of their artillery. In this engagement the British general Simon Fraser was mortally wounded, and Arnold received a severe wound in the leg. The Americans, animated by success, pursued Burgoyne's men, assaulted furiously, and gained partial possession of their camp. This battle like the first, ended with darkness. During the night, while the American forces lay on their arms, Burgoyne withdrew to the heights in his rear, not far to the north, and on the following day, to avoid capture, he retreated to Saratoga. After vainly waiting again for aid from Clinton, being still nearer the end of his provisions, exposed to the American fire, and finding further retreat impracticable, Burgoyne proposed a cessation of hostilities. He refused Gates' demand for unconditional surrender, and Gates modified the terms, which finally provided that the British should march out with the honors of war, and should freely take passage for England, on condition of not again serving against the American army. Congress failed to ratify this agreement, and the captured British, with the exception of Burgoyne and a few other officers, were held as prisoners until the end of the war. The troops surrendered numbered 5,791. An artillery train of 42 guns, more than 4,500 muskets, and a great quantity of ammunition were taken.

SARATOGA LAKE, a lake in Saratoga County in New York State, about four miles east of Saratoga Springs. It is a favorite place for regattas; it has a straight-away course three miles long and is wide enough to accommodate eight racing sculls abreast. In one of the intercollegiate regattas held here, 16 college crews competed, and had ample room. steam railroad and electric cars extend from the "Springs" to the lake. In the summer it is a favorite resort for fish and game dinners.

A

SARATOGA SPRINGS (from an Indian word meaning "Hillside of the Great River"), N. Y., city in Saratoga County, on the Delaware and Hudson, the Boston and Maine and the Adirondack railroads, 38 miles north of Albany and 185 miles north of New York. It is easily accessible to many of the large Eastern cities, the "Saratoga Special" making the run from New York in four hours; Boston may be reached in six hours; Albany and Troy one hour; from Buffalo, Rochester, the Adirondacks, the Green Mountains, the White Mountains and many other places fast trains are run, especially in the summer season. It is a remarkably healthful place and all precautions known are used to keep the water pure and the sewerage system free from defects. The missionaries were the first known white men to visit this region. In 1684 the land now constituting Saratoga Springs and adjacent counties was ceded to the Dutch by the Indians. The first white owner of the now celebrated "Springs was Rip van Dam, and Sir William Johnson (q.v.) was the first who had the efficacy of the waters tested. In 1774 the first hotel was erected. The "Springs" have made for the place a world-wide reputation. Thousands come to this city each year to use the waters, making the city one of the most popular health resorts in the country. Since 1826 the waters have been bottled and sent to various parts of the world. The Saratoga battlefield, the scene of the surrender of Burgoyne to Gates, 17 Oct. 1777, is 12 miles east of the city.

Saratoga Springs is situated on the southernmost spur of the Adirondacks, at an elevation of more than 300 feet above tide-water. The region around has practically no swamps nor marshes; the rainfall is moderate and the winters cold, the summers mild and pleasant. There are but few manufacturing establishments and the region around is composed largely of productive farms. The mineral springs are about 50 in number, 40 of which are well known. The most frequently visited and the waters of which are most extensively used are the Congress, Vichy, High Rock, Arondack, Hathorn, Patterson, Re-Mo-Ho, Red, Magnetic, Columbian, Geyser and Excelsior. The waters are cathartic, tonic, alterative and diuretic. The springs are in three groups: one about a mile south of the city, one a mile north of the city and the largest number within the corporate limits. The Saratoga Racing Park is a mile from the centre of the city. A paved sidewalk leads to the entrance gates. Polo Park, the golf links ground and other grounds furnish opportunity for outdoor sports. Saratoga Lake (q.v.) is about four miles distant.

The principal public buildings are Convention Hall, which seats 5,000 and which cost $100,000; the town-hall containing the theatre, a State armory and the hotels. The hotels of the city have on several occasions accommodated 40,000 guests. On account of its spacious hotels and its convention halls, it is a favorite place for conventions. There are 18 church buildings, representing eight different denominations. The educational institutions are the Skidmore School of Arts, a high school, public and parish elementary schools, several private schools, a public school library, the McMillan

SARATOV - SARAWAK

Reading Circle Library and the Athenæum. The charitable institutions are the Saratoga, Saint Faith and Saratoga Cure hospitals, Home of the Good Shepherd, Saint Christina Home and the Children's Home. The State of New York has established a reservation about the mineral springs. It was established in 1909 and is maintained and operated by the State Conservation Commission. Approximately 550 acres of land are included within it. Upon this property are 122 natural springs and wells, including practically every naturally mineralized and naturally carbonated water in the Saratoga region. The purpose of the State in assuming control over the Saratoga springs was to stop their commercial exploitation for carbon dioxide gas and to ensure the flow of their curative waters continuously for the benefit of the public. There are three parks upon the State Reservation, Geyser Park, High Rock Park and Lincoln Park. At three different places upon the State Reservation bath houses are conducted for administering various courses of treatment. They are run in accordance with the highest standards of the medical profession and many of the baths are given only under physicians' prescriptions. At the Lincoln Park bath house are two large, outdoor, fresh-water swimming pools which are well patronized in the summer months. The Saratoga bath house, in the centre of the city, is operated throughout the year, and every treatment may be obtained here. The Lincoln and Washington bath houses are operated all summer and as late into the fall as the demand for them continues. The Washington bath house, erected in 1919, is the largest and most completely equipped mineral-water bath house in the United States, with facilities for every important hydrotherapeutic treatment.

The two banks have a combined capital of $225,000 and a surplus of $200,000. The annual receipts and expenditures are each about $125,000. The hotels expend during the summer season about $40,000 for orchestral music. The city expends a large amount on the streets, keeping them clean and in good repair. Since 1915 the commission form of government has been in operation. In that year a city charter was granted. Pop. (1920) 13,181.

SARATOV, sä-rä'tof, Russia, (1) Capital of the government of the same name, on the Volga, 459 miles southeast of Moscow, in a fertile valley, surrounded by lofty hills. It is one of the most important and best-built cities of eastern Russia. It occupies terraced slopes, intersected by ravines, dividing the city into three parts. It contains 30 churches, besides a public library; a fine art gallery; an excellent theatre; a school of drawing; primary and technical schools, and is the seat of several important courts and public offices. There are manufactures of cordage, bells, pottery, tiles, soap, tobacco, textiles, flour, oil, etc. The trade is chiefly transit by the Volga, between Moscow and Astrakhan. The industrial works comprise flour-mills, iron and oil works, works for the manufacture of railway plants, and tobacco factories. There are extensive distilleries and manufactures of liqueurs. Agriculture and gardening are the chief occupation of a section of the population. Pop. 217,418.

(2) A government of southeast Russia, on the Lower Volga, with an area of 32,624 square

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miles. The surface is diversified by numerous hills with intervening valleys and many streams which with a mild climate and good soil contributes to rich pastures and munificent crops. There is a scarcity of timber. The chief exports are corn, flour, hemp, flax, tobacco, hops and madder. Wheat, oats, rye and tobacco are the principal crops. The mulberry is cultivated for rearing silkworms. Most of the inhabitants are Russians, although there are many Finns, Tatars and Germans, etc. Bee-keeping is a thriving industry. The value of the manufactures is approximately $12,000,000 yearly. The colonists have much improved industry by their labor and example. Pop. 3,156,100.

SARAVOFF, sä-rä'võf, Boris, Bulgarian soldier, leader in the Macedonian revolutionary committee: b. Turkey, about 1870. He studied in the military academy at Sofia, obtained a lieutenant's commission in the 1st Bulgarian infantry, in 1895 resigned his commission to devote himself to the cause of the Macedonian revolutionists, and performed many daring exploits in that service. His death was frequently reported in the press.

SARAWAK, sä-rä-wäk', Borneo, East Indies, an independent state, governed by an Englishman with the title of rajah, and now under British protection. It is situated on the northwestern side of the island, and its coast extends from Cape Datu on the southwest to Brunei Bay on the northeast, having a length of about 400 miles; the inland boundary is mainly formed by the Dutch territories, while in the northeast is the independent sultanate of Borneo proper, also now under British protection. The area of Sarawak is about 42,000 square miles and the population about 500,000. The shore is generally low and undulating, but immediately behind it the ground rises rapidly and becomes mountainous. The principal rivers are the Rejang, Baram, Batang, Lupar and the Limbang. The climate is equable. The soil is very productive, and sugarcane grows readily even without cultivation. Cloves, nutmegs and cinnamon thrive well; the more important vegetable productions are cocoanuts, rice and sago. Metals, particularly gold, antimony, silver, quicksilver and nickel, are very abundant and are worked to a considerable extent. Diamonds and other precious stones are also found, and excellent coal, favorably situated both for working and shipping. The original inhabitants are Dyaks, but are now intermixed with Malays and Chinese. They had made considerable progress in civilization. Owing to misgovernment and marauding expeditions for the purpose of obtaining slaves and other plunder they were in a wretched condition till Sir James Brooke was appointed rajah by the Sultan of Borneo in return for distinguished services in quelling disturbances and restoring order. Under his mild yet vigorous administration a happy change was produced, and extended its benefits beyond Sarawak to the adjoining territories. Sir James Brooke, who died in 1868, was succeeded by his nephew, Sir Charles Brooke. The exports consist chiefly of gutta-percha, sago, gambier, pepper, dried fish, edible birds' nests and antimony.

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The seat of the government is at Kuching, on a river of the same name. It consists of a native and a European town. Pop. est. 25,000. A battery commands the reach immediately below the town, and there a number of Chinese houses have been built. The trade of the town is considerable, and is carried on chiefly in large boats, some of them of 100 tons, which sail annually to Singapore with sago and other productions of the coast, receiving in exchange European goods, Japanese cloths, brass-work, and coarse earthenware, made in China. The revenue is derived chiefly from customs and the opium, gambling, arrack and pawn farms, exemption taxes payable by Malays. There are import duties on tobacco, salt, kerosene, wines, etc., and export duties on sago, gambier, pepper, jungle produce, dried fish, etc. The revenue is $900,000 annually and the expenditure about $750,000. Imports annually amount to about $4,000,000 and exports to $5,500,000. There are military and police forces, the former consisting of 500 Dyaks under an English army officer. There are 23 post offices and wireless stations are located at Sadong, Sibu and Miri. Straits Settlements currency is in use, of which one dollar is equivalent to 58 cents of United States currency. Consult Baring-Gould, S., and Bampfylde, C. A., History of Sarawak' (London 1909); Low, Sir H., 'Residence in Sarawak' (ib.); Ranee of Sarawak, 'My Life in Sarawak' (ib. 1913); Roth H. Ling, 'The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo' (2 vols., ib. 1896); Saint John, Sir S., 'Life of Sir Charles Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak' (London 1879); 'Rajah Brooke' (ib. 1899).

SARCEY, sär-sa, Francisque, French journalist and dramatic critic: b. Dourban, 8 Oct. 1828; d. Paris, 15 May 1899. After several years spent in general journalistic work he became dramatic critic for 'Le Temps' (1867), and in this position, which he held until his death, was a dictator of dramatic criticism, his word being accepted as final by a large part of the public. He was the author of "The Word and the Thing' (1862); Le Siège de Paris' (1871), which reached 30 editions in its first year; Etienne Moret' (1875); 'Comédiens et Comédiennes) (1878-84); Souvenirs de Jeunesse' (1884); Souvenirs d'Age mûr' (1892); 'Quarante Ans de Théatre' (1893).

th

SARCINA, sär-si'na, a genus of microscopic fungi, consisting of cubic or prismatic masses, made up generally of 8, 16 or 64 rounded, cubic cells, the faces of each cell being divided into four frustules or projections by two light grooves which cut each other at right angles. Each cell has a diameter of about to th of a line, and consists either of a completely homogeneous mass only, without nucleus or granulations, or of such a mass with four, sometimes two or three nuclei. The cells are separate from each other by rectangular striæ. Sarcinæ are found sometimes in considerable quantities in the vomitings of persons ill with chronic affections of the stomach, in the fæces of chronic diarrhoea, etc.; they have likewise been detected in the stomachs of rabbits, dogs, tortoises and other animals; in the urine; in the pus of gangrenous abscesses; in the bones, etc. The appearance of sarcinæ in vomitings indicates a particular form of dyspepsia, for which the best-known remedy is sulphate of

soda, 10 grains to one dram, dissolved in water, and taken soon after a meal. The genus Sarcina is closely allied to that of Bacterium. See BACTERIA.

a

SARCINE, hypoxanthine, C.H.NO. weakly basic organic substance closely related to xanthine and to uric acid. Found in the muscle juice and in many other fluids of the body. Colorless crystalline needles, slightly soluble in cold water, more so in hot. Unites with acids and certain metallic oxides to form compounds many of which are crystalline.

SARCODINA. A class of unicellular organisms (protozoa) that are without an extennal membrane or cell wall. During the active, or vegetative stage of existence they form pseudopodia, processes of the protoplasmic body substance by which locomotion is achieved and food material seized and taken in. For protection many of them construct a shell of lime, silica or chitin though a few cement together fragments of foreign material to form such a test. The common ameba, very similar in general structure to the white blood corpuscles, is usually regarded as a typical representative of the group. It illustrates the simplest forms in that no skeleton or other specialized structures are present although at certain times a temporary cyst wall is formed as a protection against cold or drought, or during spore formation. The character of the pseudopodia and of the shell are the main factors utilized in distinguishing the subdivisions of the class. Certain amebæ are parasitic and are indistinguishable in general structure from the free-living species. They are indeed doubtless descended from slime-inhabiting forms which would require very little physiological modification to adapt themselves to parasitic existence in the intestine.

Most species exhibit under a high power a narrow marginal zone of clear material the hyaline ectoplasm which includes a more fluid granular endoplasm. The latter is in constant movement and contains food particles, noncontractile vacuoles, reserved materials, waste products, and one or more nuclei. The contractile vacuoles are located at the indefinite

boundary line between the ecto- and endoplasm. They are, however, rarely found in parasitic species.

Multiplication is ordinarily simple cell division. The periodic encystment is usually accompanied by formation within the cyst of numerous swarm spores by multiple division. In some cases and perhaps always before encystment two individuals come together with an exchange of nuclear substance or complete fusion as a preliminary to the rapid division that produces the numerous spores. Such swarm spores are very minute. In parasitic species they are the elements for the infection of new hosts and this is brought about ordinarily by the transfer of ripe cysts, or less easily of the vegetative state of the organism.

Differentiation of species is very difficult and demands knowledge of the cyst and of details of spore formation. Many amebæ in vegetative form are merely developmental stages of other organisms and even those which are properly members of the group of Sarcodina are so similar that accurate differentiation is not yet possible in most cases.

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