The parasites of amebic dysentery have been known since 1860 but the form known as Endamaba coli, which is believed by the majority of investigators to be harmless, has only recently been clearly differentiated from the pathogenic species E. histolytica. Both often occur together in the human intestine. While amebic dysentery is in general a disease of the tropics and subtropics the Mayo Clinic has tabulated within a short period over 500 cases which came from every northern State in the Union and from the Canadian Northwest. Infection in temperate regions is much less frequent than in the tropics where, as in the Philippines, e.g., careful reports show an infection of 37.5 per cent.

The free living Sarcodina fall chiefly in two orders. Among the most abundant of marine animals are the Rhizopoda whose calcareous shells also form large deposits in the rocks. The Radiolaria are equally abundant in the Pacific and connecting oceans as well as in fossil strata. These forms construct a skeleton of silica the form of which is characterized by sharp radiating spicules. The number and variety of these organisms is beyond conception. They form a considerable part of the bottom ooze found in the deep sea everywhere.

Other free living species are abundant in fresh water bodies and in fact occur in almost any moist environment. Recent discoveries have even disclosed the occurrence of enormous numbers of small amebæ in surface soils where they live in conjunction with various types of bacteria and are believed to play an important part in determining the fertility of the soil.

HENRY B. WARD, Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois.

SARCOMA. See TUMOR.

SARCOPHAGUS, originally the name given to a kind of stone that used to be quarried at Assos in the Troad, and which was employed for coffins or tombs: a coffin made of this stone was supposed to possess the property of consuming within a few weeks a dead body laid in it: in Greek sarkophagos means flesh-consuming, or flesh-devouring. Sarcophagus is now used only in the sense of coffin or tomb made of stone, or of terra-cotta or concrete as in the case of the highly ornate tombs which are found among the remains of ancient Etrurian art. Some of the sarcophagi found in Egypt are contemporary with the pyramids : the earliest are squared or oblong, the later ones, whether plain or ornamented with reliefs, have the same shape as the swathed mummies. Phoenician sarcophagi were modeled like the mummiform sarcophagi of Egypt, and were of marble or basalt; some of them showed the principal contours of the body. Before cremation of the dead came into general use at Rome, the illustrious dead were deposited in massive sarcophagi; celebrated among these is the tomb of the Scipios; under the empire Roman sarcophagi were very elaborately ornamented after the manner of the Etrurians. In modern times deceased men of great eminence or great wealth are sometimes laid away in stone chests or sarcophagi. Consult Robert, 'Die Antiken Sarkophag reliefs' (Berlin 1897); Strong, 'Roman Sculpture (London 1907); Fowler, 'Handbook of Greek Archeology) (New York 1909);

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Myres, Handbook of the Cesnola Collection' (New York 1914).

SARCOPSYLLA, a genus of parasitic fleas which bury their heads in the flesh of their hosts and create bad sores. The most noted species is S. penetrans, the chigo (q.v.). In our southern States and elsewhere another species, the chicken-flea (S. gallinacea), buries itself in the eyelids of domestic fowls.

SARCOSINE, methyl glycocoll, methyl glycine, CH2.NHCH.COOH, a substance discoered by Liebig in the decomposition product of the creatine obtained from meat extract. Later made by the action of methyl-amine on monochlor-acetic acid. A colorless crystalline compound easily soluble in water.

SARD, a translucent, reddish-brown variety of chalcedony, extensively used as a ringstone. See CORNELIAN.

SARDANAPALUS, sär-da-na-pā'lŭs (AsSUBBANI-PAL) Assyrian king, ruled 668-625 B.C. He was the eldest son of Esarhaddon, grandson of Sennacherib, and great-grandson of Sargon. His father resigned the throne to him in 668 B.C., reserving only Babylon to himself. The following year the father's death left Sardanapalus sole ruler. Revolts being common upon a change of rulers, the attention of the new Assyrian king was called to the suppression of one in Egypt, where Tirhakah of Ethiopia had overthrown the system of princes tributary to Assyria. Tirhakah was driven southward out of Egypt after a disastrous battle, but his successor renewed the revolt and met with defeat. Thebes was robbed of an immense amount of treasures of art and wealth. Tyre also revolted, but after a prolonged blockade its king_submitted. The kings of Arvad, Cilicia and Tabal were put in subjection, and Gyges of Lydia, who besought an alliance with Sardanapalus to aid him against his Cimmerian enemies from the Black Sea region, found he was accepted on terms which implied submission; and when later he assisted Psammetichus in throwing off the Assyrian yoke in Egypt he was destroyed by Sardanapalus. War broke out with Urtaku, king of Elam, who had made a raid upon Accad, ruled by the brother of the Assyrian king. It took a long struggle to complete the subjection of the country but it was accomplished finally during the reign of Teumman, Urtaku's usurping successor. After a great victory near Susa, Urtaku's sons were placed over the kingdom as Assyrian vassals. The decline of the empire began when the king's brother, Samassum-ukin (or Shamash-shum-ukin), ruler of Babylon, as vassal-king, instigated a revolt which was so widespreading as to include Elam, Arabia, Egypt, Chaldæa and other Asiatic countries. Egypt alone under Psammetichus secured her independence. Babylon was taken after a long siege and Samas-sum-ukin perished in the flames of his burning palace. Between 646-640 B.C. Elam was subjugated and Susa, after being pillaged, was razed to the ground. Sardanapalus celebrated his victories in Arabia by a triumphal procession through Nineveh.

Assurbanipal figures in classical literature under the name of Sardanapalus and there is described as a mere sensualist. Though cruel and implacable to foes, he was an enlightened despot, and literature and art, particularly architecture, flourished in his reign and attained

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their highest degree of perfection. The king collected a famous library of all the known cuneiform tablets. The remains of his splendid palace with its priceless library were excavated at Kuyanjck. The tablets now belong to the British Museum, and form the basis of our present knowledge of the civilization and history of Assyria. Consult Oppert, 'Histoire des Empires de Chaldée et d'Assyrie'; Lenormant, 'Manual d'Histoire Ancienne de l'Orient' (1869); Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World' (1879); and the works cited of A. H. Sayce (q.v.).

SARDINES (sär'dēnz') AND SARDINE FISHERIES. The name sardine is a general one applied to various small fishes of the family Clupeide as well as, and less correctly, to the young of some of the larger species. "Thus, there are the Spanish sardine of the West Indies and Florida; the California sardine, found along the entire west coast of the United States; the Chile sardine; the oil sardine of India, and the sardines of Japan and New Zealand. But the sardine par excellence is the French sardine, so-called from the island of Sardinia, in the Mediterranean, about whose shores the fish are abundant." The sardine or pilchard (Clupea or Clupanodon pilchardus) is usually about five or seven inches long, of an olive-green color above and silvery on the sides and below, with very large easily displaced scales, only about 30 of which form a complete longitudinal row. The usual French sardines are the yearling fish of what becomes, when full grown, the pilchard of English fishermen, attaining a length of 8 to 10 inches. Geographically it ranges throughout the Mediterranean; in the Atlantic from Madeira to Ireland and in the North and Baltic seas. They feed on minute crustaceans, larval forms and floating fish-eggs, the only kind of food for which their nearly toothless mouths are adapted. The pilchard spawns throughout the summer in the open sea, laying about 60,000 buoyant eggs. On the coast of Brittany, where the principal fisheries are located, sardines are now caught throughout the summer, and to a less extent at other seasons, exclusively by means of gill-nets of very fine twine and small mesh, which varies to suit the size of the run of fish. These nets are dyed blue, partly to preserve, partly to render them inconspicuous in the water; and the schools of fish are tolled into them by means of a bait made of the salted roes of various fishes, chiefly cod. The nets are operated from small two-masted boats which never go beyond a few miles from the shore. The catch is brought ashore and a portion is consumed fresh, but the bulk is sold to the canning factories.

The fishes, when bought for curing, are first beheaded and then gutted, and sorted according to size. They are then washed in sea-water and dried by being suspended on wire screens, nets or willows in the open air, and are then plunged into a cauldron of boiling olive-oil. For the cheaper grades peanut or cottonseedoil is used. The sardines are laid in the cauldron on wire gratings, two rows deep, and are kept therein until sufficiently cooked, when they are taken out and allowed to drip, the oil-drippings being carefully collected. They are packed in the tin cases, which are filled with oil, and sealed hermetically. Throughout the process

the greatest care is exercised to keep the fish in the best condition. The offal and waste of the sardine-curing industry is sold as manure to the farmers.

The sardine fishery is the most important fishery industry of France, employing before the war about 32,000 fishermen and more than 8,000 boats, and yielding an annual product of about 60,000,000 kilograms of sardines, valued at about 9,000,000 francs. At the last ante bellum enumeration about 15,000 persons were employed in the canning factories with an annual output of 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 boxes. The better grades are consumed in France, but the United States imports French sardines, chiefly of the cheaper grades. Sardines are also packed to a smaller extent elsewhere in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal.

In the United States a true sardine (C. cæruleus) occurs on the coast of California and, judging from the results attained in the canning of small quantities, it promises to rival the French product in delicate flavor and industrial importance. But the principal sardine industry of the United States centres about Eastport, Me., where the young of the herring is packed. These fish are caught chiefly in brush weirs (see POUND-NET FISHING) and are sold to the canneries, where they are treated in general after the French method with some local modifications. Drying rooms or ovens are employed in place of the open air; when ovens are used the fish are not boiled in oil, but are at once sealed; cottonseed-oil is almost universally employed instead of olive-oil; and various labor-saving devices have been introduced. The product is distinctly inferior to the best or even middlegrade French sardine. Various special grades, put up in mustard, tomato sauce and spices, are also packed. The output of the 45 canneries in Maine is about 550,000 cases, valued at about $2,000,000, annually.

Bibliography.- Cunningham, Natural History of Marketable Marine Fishes' (London 1896); Fage, 'Recherches sur la Biologie de la Sardine' (in Archives de Zoologie,' Paris 1913); Hall, 'Herring Fisheries of Passamaquoddy Bay' (Report United States Fish Commission for 1896); Smith, The French Sardine Industry) (1901); Statistiques des Peches Maritimes (Paris); Stevenson, Preservation of Fishery Products for Food' (United States Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898). See HERRING.

SARDINIA, sär-din'i-a, Island of (Italian, SARDEGNA), in the Mediterranean Sea, south of the island of Corsica, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bonifacio, not quite seven miles wide, extends between lat. 38° 50′ to 41° 15′ N., and long. 8° 5' to 9° 50′ E. It is 152 miles long from Cape Teulada in the south to Longo Sardo in the north, and has a central breadth of about 66 miles. Its total area is 9,299 square miles divided into two provinces of the kingdom of Italy (q.v.), Cagliari and Sassari, the former comprising the districts of Cagliari, Iglesias, Oristano and Lonusei, and the latter those of Nuoro, Alghero, Ozieri, Sassari and Tempio, named after the principal urban aggregations. The density of the population is 94.7 per square mile. Cagliari (q.v.) (pop. 59,600) is the capital. Before the consolidation of the Italian kingdom in 1861, Sardinia with its surrounding is

lands, the principal of which are San Antioco, San Pietro, Asinara, Madalena, Tavolara and Caprera formed that part of the Sardinian states named the Kingdom of Sardinia. See SARDINIAN MONARCHY.

Topography. The island is nearly in the form of a parallelogram. In a prehistoric age it was united with Corsica. The interior is generally mountainous, the great chain which traverses Corsica from north to south being evidently, notwithstanding the interruption of the Strait of Bonifacio, continued into Sardinia, where it usually follows the same direction, but occasionally sends out transverse branches east to west. The culminating point is the peak of Generagentu, situated a little to the east of the centre of the island, which attains the height of 6,132 feet. Between the mountain ridges are several extensive plains, of which the most celebrated for beauty and fertility are those of the Campidano in the south, and of Ozieri in the north. There are several large sandy or stony districts called macchie, of a very sterile nature. The streams are numerous, and add considerably to the fertility of the districts through which they pass, but are of no navigable importance. The Tirso, the largest, pours its waters into the Gulf of Oristano on the west coast. The lakes are situated chiefly in the vicinity of the coast, where they form a series of lagoons. Sardinia has a total coast line of 835 miles. The north coast is generally rugged and precipitous, presenting a succession of bold headlands. The principal bay is that of Porto Torres, in the Gulf of Asinara. The west coast is extremely diversified in character, rocky headlands (the principal of which is Cape Argentiera, 5,200 feet high), beaches, low hills, tablelands, open bays and bold islets succeeding each other. Guarding the strait of Bonifacio a group of fortified islands constitutes the naval station of Maddalena. Teulada, nearly 900 feet high, forms the most southerly point of the island. Turning north from Cape Spartivento a number of rocky islets present themselves, lining a low and marshy beach, which continues almost unbroken. The Island of San Macario forms the southwest entrance of the Gulf of Cagliari. This gulf, besides having the capital situated on its northern shore, everywhere furnishes excellent anchorage in ample depth, and in the grounds along and behind it exhibits the best specimens of cultivation of which Sardinia can boast. The east coast, from Cape Carbonara northward, stretches nearly in a straight line, the continuity of which is seldom interrupted by indentations. The most conspicuous of all the headlands is that of Monte Santo, a rugged promontory upward of 2,400 feet high, sloping toward the sea, and terminating in bold precipices of limestone, within which is an extensive cave fantastically adorned with enormous milk-white stalactites.

Cape

Geology. The greater part of the rocks are of crystalline texture and belong to the earliest formations, consisting of granite, overlain by gneiss and mica-schist. Trachyte, basalt and other rocks of volcanic formation are most largely developed in the Northwest, but also Occupy a greater number of isolated spots throughout the island, and more especially in the southwest, where the adjacent islands of Saint Pietro and Saint Antioco are almost entirely composed of them. In many cases the

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mouths of ancient craters and the lava-streams issuing from them can be distinctly traced. Sedimentary Silurian rocks break the continuity of the granite on the east, and a large tract in the southwest belongs to the same formation, extending in a southwest direction till it reaches the southern extremity of the island and forms the remarkable promontory of Teulada. The limestones and chalks at the top of the secondary formation are not largely developed, but occupy a number of isolated tracts both in the interior and on the coast. In the latter portion they form conspicuous objects in the northwest, where the cliffs to the north of the Gulf of Álghero are composed of them, and in the east, where they form the great mass of Monte Santo and contain its celebrated stalactical cave. Tertiary rocks of travertine, marl and sandstone occupy a considerable tract near the town and along the Gulf of Sassari, and also in the south, where they form the eastern boundary of the plain of Campidano. That plain itself, however, has a deep covering of alluvium, which partly accounts for its remarkable fertility. Similar tracts of alluvium, though of much more limited extent, are found in the Plain of Ozieri in the north and along the Gulf of Palmas in the south and that of Paglia in the southwest.

Minerals. The mineral riches of the island were well known to the ancients, whose extensive workings can still be traced. Tradition enumerates gold among its metals, but no traces of it can now be found. Lead, however, exists in considerable abundance, and is generally highly argentiferous. Mines of it are profusely scattered over various districts. Zinc ore (calamine) is worked, also lead ore; and both are exported. Copper occurs in several quarters and occasionally furnishes beautiful specimens of malachite. Quicksilver has been found and was once partially worked, and both bismuth and antimony are said to exist; iron of excellent quality is plentifully distributed and is worked in several districts. The other mineral products deserving of notice are porphyry, basalt, alabaster, marble, volcanic enamels, rock-crystals and a variety of beautiful pebbles, lignite, gypsum and nitre. Salt, in its mineral form, is found only in the grottoes of Serrenti, but is extensively obtained from the salt-pans along the coast, and forms one of the most profitable sources of royal revenue, for the sake of which it is strictly maintained as a government monopoly. There are about 12,000 engaged in mining, and the island takes fifth place in this industry among the Italian provinces.

Climate. The climate of Sardinia has for many ages borne a very bad name; at certain seasons large districts become so insalubrious as to be regularly deserted by their inhabitants, while in others the mortality is remarkably great. The range of the thermometer is between 34° and 90° and the mean annual temperature 61° 7". Hence neither heat nor cold can be said to be in excess. During the hot season, in the low-lying lands, miasmata are continually arising to taint the air, the malignant properties of which become so virulent at night or in the cool of the evening that the natives never quit their homes until an hour after sunrise and hasten to return before sunset, carefully closing every door and window. The disease which then prevails is

known by the name of intemperie, and is said to be even more fatal than the malaria by which parts of Italy and Sicily are infested.

Flora and Fauna.- The whole surface of Sardinia has been divided into three portionsone occupied by mountains, where not absolutely barren, is covered with forests or clothed with pasture; one occupied by marshes, lagoons and the almost sterile macchie, and one under tolerably regular culture, as arable land, oliveyard, vineyard, etc. See paragraph on Agriculture.

Game of all kinds is very abundant. Wild boars, stags, deer and mufflons frequent the woods and forests; and foxes, hares and rabbits are so numerous that their skins furnish a considerable article of export.

Fisheries. From the extent of seacoast the fisheries naturally form an important branch of industry, which, however, is almost entirely in the hands of strangers. The most valuable fishery is that of the tunny, which is carried on extensively on various parts of the coast. Anchovies and sardines, the latter at one time so numerous as to have derived their name from the island, have become comparatively scarce. Fine mullet, bream, eels and other fish abound, and are staple articles of consumption and commerce. The coral fisheries, more celebrated in ancient than in modern times, are still carried on on the western and southern coasts. The Pinna nobilis also, the inhabitant of a shell of from 15 inches to 27 inches in length, abounds in the smooth water of shallow bays, as at Porto-Conte and Liscia, and is the object of an important fishery, partly on account of the pearls, generally of very indifferent quality, obtained from it, and still more on account of its byssus, or tuft of silky hair, which is about eight inches long, and is spun into gloves, stockings or other articles of dress.

Ethnology. The inhabitants resemble the Spaniards rather than the Italians in character. Their demeanor is grave and dignified compared with the vivacity of the Italians, and they are characterized by their unwavering fidelity to their sovereign, their chivalric sense of honor and their hospitality. They suffered much, however, from long neglect and misgovernment, are ignorant and bigoted, and when they have received an injury are insatiable in their thirst for revenge, but the celebrated blood-feuds are now uncommon and brigandage has ceased. With the exception of the inhabitants of Cagliari and Sassari, the two chief towns of the island, the Sardinians have as yet been little influenced by the modern advances of civilization, and in some remote districts the traveler may imagine himself translated to a period several centuries earlier.

Agriculture.- Much of the land is of remarkable fertility but the system of agriculture pursued is imperfect. The Italian system of partnership or colonia parziaria, more especially in mezzadria, consisting in a form of partnership between the proprietor and the cultivator, is practised to some extent. The grain raised considerably exceeds the consumption of the present inhabitants, and might easily be increased so as to supply three times the number. The whole operations of the farm are conducted in an antiquated manner. The principal crop is wheat, which is generally of ex

cellent quality, and forms an important article of export in the form not only of grain but of flour, biscuit and macaroni. The culture of barley is more limited and the quality of the produce is comparatively inferior; maize thrives well, and though not yet a general crop is rising rapidly into favor; beans and peas are extensively grown both for home consumption and export. Dairy farming flourishes, the island being second of the Italian provinces in cheese production. The vine is well adapted both to the climate and the soil. The produce, however, is more remarkable for its quantity than its quality, all the preparatory processes being conducted in a careless and imperfect manner. The most esteemed wines are those of the Campidano, Alghero, Sorso and Ogliastro. Beautiful and extensive olive-grounds are met with in various quarters, but the culture might easily be extended and made much more profitable than it has yet proved to be. The best oil is that of Sassari. The only other crops deserving of notice are tobacco, which is grown to some extent in several districts, but particularly around Sassari, Alghero and the adjacent villages; linseed, which is produced in the greatest abundance in the neighborhood of Oristano; cotton, for which the soil and climate of the Campidano appear well adapted; madder, which grows wild in many parts of the island, and, though neglected, might easily be cultivated to great advantage; and silk, well fitted to become a staple product, but at present produced chiefly for amusement.

Industries and Commerce.- Manufactures have made very little progress and are chiefly confined to a few coarse tissues woven by the women at their homes for private use. Tobacco and gunpowder-both, like salt, government monopolies are manufactured to a considerable extent. Industrial establishments number 4,015, with 34,016 employees, utilizing 13,064 horse power, according to available statistics. The trade consists of the exports of raw produce, the greater part of which have already been enumerated, including corn, wine, brandy, timber, seeds, fish, cattle, lead ore, calamine, salt, tobacco, etc.; the imports include all the ordinary tissues, more especially cotton, colonial produce, hosiery, hardware and metals, hemp and cordage, etc. One great obstacle to the progress of trade was the miserable state of the roads, but good roads have now been made and railway lines constructed. The coinage, weights and measures are the same now as those on the mainland.

Language, Education, Religion, Government, etc. The language consists of a number of dialects differing widely in many of their roots; several of them closely resemble Spanish. Over 73 per cent of the inhabitants are unable to read or write. There are two universities, one at Cagliari and the other at Sassari. The people are Roman Catholics. Sardinia now has a provincial government similar to the rest of Italy.

History. The early history of the island is involved in much obscurity. Its prehistoric monuments of the Bronze Age (2000-1800 B.C.) are of considerable archæological interest. Its original inhabitants, according to Cicero of Libyo-Phoenician, and according to Strabo of Tyrrhene extraction, were living independent

when, about 530 B.C., they were attacked by the Carthaginians, and obliged, after a valiant but ineffectual resistance, to quit the low country and retire into their mountain fastnesses. During the first Punic War the Romans made strenuous exertions to become masters of the island, and ultimately, on agreeing to make peace, obtained a formal cession of it from the Carthaginians. This cession is mentioned by Livy as one of the causes which led to the second Punic War, in which Rome, though finally victorious, was brought to the brink of ruin by Hannibal. During the struggles between Rome and Carthage, Sardinia often became the theatre of war, and suffered equally from both the powerful states which contended for its possession. At a very early period the inhabitants were converted to Christianity. They passed successively into the hands of the Vandals, the Goths, the Longobards and Saracens. By the united efforts of the Genoese and Pisans the Saracens were ultimately expelled from the island, and then rival claims were set up for it by its liberators themselves. During the disputes that ensued some of the judges or governors succeeded in establishing themselves as independent princes. In 1297 Boniface VIII invested the kings of Aragon with Sardinia, and it continued in the possession of Spain till 1708, when it was taken possession of by the British. In 1713, in terms of the Peace of Utrecht, it was yielded to Austria. In 1720 it was ceded by Austria to Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily. The Duke of Savoy thereafter assumed the title of king of Sardinia, which was finally exchanged in 1861 for that of king of Italy. Pop. 880,863.

Bibliography.-Alinari, V., 'In Sardegna, note di viaggio' (Florence 1915); Bennet, La Corse et la Sardaigne; Etude de voyage et de climatologie) (Paris 1876); Boullier, A., 'L'Ile de Sardaigne) (Paris 1865); Deecke, W., 'Italy, including Malta and Sardinia) (London 1904); Edwardes, C., 'Sardinia and the Sardes' (London 1889); Flitch, J. E. C., 'Mediterranean Moods: Footnotes of Travel' (New York 1911); Pais, E., 'La Sardegna prima del dominio romano' (Rome 1881); Tennant, R., 'Sardinia and its Resources) (London 1885); Vuillier, G., "The Forgotten Isles) (New York 1896); and Dolmens, Tombs of the Giants and Nuraghi of Sardinia) (in Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. LXXXIX, 1910).

SARDINIAN MONARCHY, a former south European kingdom, comprising Sardinia (q.v.) and its surrounding islands as the nucleate portion with several dependencies on the Italian mainland, which included the duchy of Savoy, whence came its kings; the principality of Piedmont; the county of Nice; the duchy of Genoa and parts of the duchies of Montferrat and Milan. These latter were divided for administrative purposes into 11 divisions-Turin, Genoa, Chambéry, Alessandria, Coni, Novara, Nice, Annecy, Ivrea, Savona and Vercelli. Previous to the annexation of its territories consequent on the events of 1859 (see ITALY), and the disjunction from it of the duchy of Savoy and the county of Nice, which, in the same year, were ceded to and now form part of France, comprised in the whole an extent of 28,229 square miles, with a population in 1858 of 5,194,807. A new constitution was voluntarily granted by Charles Albert in 1848, under

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which two legislative chambers were introduced, freedom of the press conceded and important reforms carried through. Catholicism was the religion of the state, but all other forms were tolerated. The last Sardinian king was Victor Emmanuel II, afterward king of Italy, who succeeded to the throne in 1849. The royal title was King of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem, and Duke of Savoy. The crown-prince was styled Prince of Piedmont.

History. The country which formed the Sardinian states was known in ancient times in its southern part by the name of Liguria, and in its northern part, bounded on the north by the Pennine and on the west by the Graian and Cottian Alps, by the name of Gallia Cisalpina. Savoy, separated from the other parts, and lying beyond the Alps, was considered as belonging to Gallia Narbonensis. From this remote corner of the territory sprang the present royal house of Italy. In the middle of the 11th century, Humbert, Count of Maurienne, a great vassal of Rudolf III of Burgundy, appears exercising jurisdiction not only over Maurienne, but various other parts of Savoy, the Lower Valais and Aosta. This jurisdiction was extended to the banks of the Po by Humbert's son, Otho, who died in 1060, leaving two sons, who became successively counts of Savoy. Under Amadeus III a long series of changes followed, during which the house of Savoy was sometimes brought to the verge of destruction, and at other times attained to such prosperity as to excite the jealousies or fears of neighboring states. One of the counts, called Peter, ruled from 1263 to 1268. He added the canton of Vaud to his dominions, and in many ways improved the fortunes of his house. Henry III of England, who had married his sister, made him Earl of Richmond, and gave him for residence a palace on the banks of the Thames, which hence took the name of Savoy House. Among Peter's successors the most distinguished are Amadeus V, whose prosperous rule, from 1284 to 1323, procured him the title of Great. Amadeus VIII at the termination of his long reign of 49 years, in 1440, left his successor in possession of territories which gave him a distinguished place among the sovereigns of Europe. Being, however, interposed between France and Germany, they were often made the battlefield on which these great countries met to decide their quarrels. Notwithstanding this disadvantage, the house of Savoy, at the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, by which the wars of the French and Spanish monarchies were terminated, after they had raged for nearly 80 years, found itself under Charles Emmanuel II as great and prosperous as ever. He was succeeded in 1675 by Victor Amadeus II, during whose reign war between France and Germany again broke out. Amadeus became almost necessarily involved, but played his part so ably, that at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 he not only added considerably to his continental possessions but obtained possession and was formally crowned king of Sicily. By a subsequent arrangement he exchanged Sicily for the Island of Sardinia, from which he and his successors took the title of king. On his death in 1730 he was succeeded by Emmanuel III, who became involved in the war of the Spanish Succession and saw his territories laid waste by contending armies. The Peace of Aix-la