"Poe" lock, built at a cost of $3,000,000, was put in commission in 1896. The canal was also deepened to 25 feet. From 1892 to 1903 many millions of dollars were expended in laying out a new and straighter route through Hay Lake and other channels, eliminating a number of short turns and giving dredged areas over 30 miles in length. This was one of the chief causes of the reduction of the cost of the freight-ton through the canal from 13.57 mills in 1882 to 3.53 mills in 1909. A new work of great importance was begun in 1908. It consisted of the widening and deepening of the canal above the locks and in the Middle Neebish channel, and the construction of the new canal and the great Davis lock. This work was completed in 1914 at a cost of $5,000,000, the result being that the canal is now 500 feet wide at the upper entrance, 270 feet at the basin, 108 feet at the lock gates and 1,000 feet wide at the lower entrance. The improved Middle Neebish channel is now 300 feet in width and has 22 feet of water over the rock at mean low stage level of Lake Huron. The excavations for the third or Davis lock were completed early in 1912 and allowed for a lock chamber 1,350 feet long and 80 feet wide with a minimum depth of 24 to 25 feet below extreme low water. A separate and free waterway was also constructed to feed the new locks. One result of the opening of the new lock in 1914 was that the largest sized bulk freighters, which since 1895 had been using the Canadian canal, began again to take advantage of the United States canal. (See below).

The plans adopted in 1907 were designed with a view to affording an approach also to a fourth lock, with the same dimensions as the third, and an appropriation was noted in 1912, and work on the excavations commenced soon thereafter. The lock pit was finished in the spring of 1915, the masonry work was half completed by the beginning of 1917, and the lock was opened for navigation in 1919, the cost being $3,275,000. The great length of the third and fourth locks, 1,350 feet as compared with 1,000 feet in the Panama Canal, enables sometimes as many as five ships to go through in one lockage. As many as 125 ship passages are made in these locks in a single day. The new jack-knife bridge which spans the canal, providing means for passing over the third and fourth locks, is claimed to be the largest bascule bridge in the world. Besides the canals on the American side of the international line, the Dominion government opened a large Canadian canal in 1895. This canal is one and one-eighth miles long, 150 feet wide and 22 feet deep, with a lock 900 feet long and 60 feet wide, with 22 feet on the mitre sill. (See CANADIAN CANALS). The commerce passing through these canals which are toll-free eight months of the year is far greater than is borne by the Suez Canal, the Kiel Canal and the Manchester Canal combined in a whole year; the commerce of the Erie Canal, the Welland Canal and the canals of the Saint Lawrence may be added and the aggregate will still fall short of the tremendous tonnage passing through the "Soo" canals. It reached in 1910 a total of 62,363,218 tons - an increase of 4,468,069 over 1909. The total freight traffic passing through the United States locks in 1915

319

was 71,290,304 short tons, and in 1916 it totaled 92,000,000. Through the Canadian canal the freight totaled 16,816,649 tons. In 1918 the cost of operating the American canals amounted to $120,000, averaging less than two mills per ton of freight.

SAUMAREZ, sō-mä-ra', or SAUSMAREZ, James, BARON DE, British naval officer: b. Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, 11 March 1757; d. there, 9 Oct. 1836. He served in the American War; was raised to the rank of commander after the engagement between the English and Dutch in 1781, and was captain of the Russell in the combat between Rodney and De Grasse. In 1793 he was knighted for the capture of the Réunion, a French frigate. In March 1795 he was appointed to the command of the Orion, in which ship he opened the battle of L'Orient, in which the French fleet was defeated, 23 June; he shared in the victory off Cape Saint Vincent, 14 Feb. 1797, and was second in command to Lord Nelson in the victory of the Nile, 1 Aug. 1798. In 1801 he was made rear-admiral, created a baron and appointed to the command of the squadron cruising off Cadiz. He defeated a Franco-Spanish fleet of 10 sail of the line and four frigates. At the beginning of the war with Russia (1809) he commanded the Baltic fleet. In 1821 he became vice-admiral of Great Britain, was raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom with the title of Baron de Saumarez of Saumarez, in 1831, and thenceforth lived in retirement. Consult Ross, Memoirs of Admiral Lord de Saumarez (1838).

SAUNDERS, sän'derz, Alvin, American legislator: b. Fleming County, Ky., 12 July 1817; d. Omaha, Neb., 1 Nov. 1899. He removed with his parents to Illinois in 1828, and at 16 went to Iowa. He studied law, was postmaster for seven years and eventually became a banker. He was a member of the convention which framed the constitution under which Iowa was admitted to statehood, was State senator for eight years and a commissioner to organize the Pacific Railroad Company. In 1861-67 he was governor of the Territory of Nebraska and during the Civil War sent 3,000 troops to the front besides repelling the attacks of the Indians, although the entire population of the Territory numbered but 30,000. Iserved in the United States Senate in 1877-83, was active in the movement for the resumption of specie payment, secured a labor school for the Indians on the Pawnee Reservation, obtained 600,000 acres for Nebraska by straightening its northern boundary line, and was prominent as a commissioner on Indian affairs.

He

SAUNDERS, Frederick, American librarian, publisher and author: b. London, England, 14 Aug. 1807; d. New York, 12 Dec. 1902. He came to the United States in 1837 and established in New York a branch of his father's publishing business, and did some earnest if unsuccessful pioneer work in the interest of an international copyright law, a project in which he had the support of Irving Bancroft, Bryant and other famous authors. He was city editor of the New York Evening Post for a time; and in 1859 he became assistant librarian at the Astor Library, filling the office of chief librarian in 1876-96, when he resigned. He was well known as a contributor to magazines and reviews and was author of 'Salad

for the Solitary by an Epicure' (1853); About Woman, Love and Marriage' (1868); Pastime Papers (1885); 'Character Studies) (1894),

etc.

SAUNDERS, Richard, the name under which Benjamin Franklin published his 'Poor Richard's Almanac (1732-57).

SAUNDERS, Thomas Bailey, English author: b. Alice, Cape Colony, 2 Dec. 1860. He was educated at King's College, London, and at University College, Oxford, became a barrister in 1886 and has since engaged in literary work. He has made translations of much of the work of Schopenhauer and Goethe and has written 'Life and Letters of James McPherson' (1893); The Quest of Faith (1899) 'Prof. Harnack and His Oxford Critics' (1902); (Schopenhauer' (1901), etc.

SAUNDERS, William, Canadian agriculturist, pharmacist and entomologist: b. Devonshire, England, 16 June 1836; d. 13 Sept. 1914. He accompanied his parents to Canada in 1848 and became a manufacturing chemist at London, Ontario. Becoming extensively interested in agriculture, he made a study of soils and insect pests, and did much to further the development of scientific agriculture in Canada. He was professor of materia medica at Western University in 1882-85 and public analyst for western Ontario in 1882-86. He was one of the founders of the Ontario College of Pharmacy and served as its president for two years. In 1885, under government direction, he investigated agricultural experiment work in the United States and Europe, his report resulting in the establishment of the Canadian experiment farms, of which he was in charge in 18861911. He was a founder of the Ontario Entomological Society, and was one of the original fellows of the Royal Society of Canada, of which he was president in 1900. Author of 'Insects Injurious to Fruit' (1882; 2d ed., 1898).

SAUNDERS, William Lawrence, American engineer and inventor: b. Columbus, Ga., 1 Nov. 1856. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1876, and in 1878-81 he was with the National Storage Company at Communipaw, N. J. He was afterward president of the Ingersoll-Sergeant Drill Company and an officer in other companies manufacturing tools and machinery. He invented a compressed air system of pumping liquids; a drill for use upon submerged rocks, and the Ingersoll track and bar channelers for quarrying stone. In 1915 he was appointed to the United States Naval Advisory Board and subsequently became its chairman. Author of "Compressed Air Information' (1903); 'Compressed Air Production, and joint author of Subways and Tunnels of New York; 'Rock Drillings.'

SAUREL, a fish. See SCAD.

SAURIA, sâ'ri-a, a term variously applied in the classification of the reptiles, but in this work restricted to designate the subclass composed of the orders Lacertilia (lizards) and Ophidia (serpents). In popular speech the phrase "saurian reptiles» usually means alligators or crocodiles. See REPTILES.

SAURIN, Jacques, zhäk so-răn, French Protestant preacher: b. Nimes, 6 Jan. 1677; d.

The Hague, 30 Dec. 1730. After study at Geneva he became pastor in 1701 of a Walloon congregation in London, but in 1705 went to The Hague to take charge of a church of French_refugees assembling there in a chapel of the Prince of Orange. Here his pulpit oratory was so greatly admired that it roused the bitter envy of his clerical brethren, who charged him with heresy and subjected him to a series of petty persecutions which shortened his life. His doctrines were those of moderate Calvinism. As a pulpit orator he has been likened to Bossuet, and so far as vigor of presentation goes this may be thought just. He was the author of 12 volumes of Sermons,' selections from which were translated into English, and published between 1775 and 1784 in five volumes (with a Memoir'), a sixth being added in 1796. Among his other works are 'Etat du Christianisme en France) (1725); 'Abrégé de la théologie et de la morale Chrétienne' (1722); 'Discours sur les evénements les plus mémorables du vieux et du Nouveau Testament' (1720-28). Consult 'Life' by Berthault (1875).

SAUROPODA, sâ-rop'ō-dą, a sub-order of dinosaurian reptiles which included gigantic forms, such as Brontosaurus, Morosaurus, Diplodocus and the like. (See DINOSAURIA). It is difficult, remarks Gadow, to understand how these huge, long-necked Sauropoda lived and moved about. The long neck suggests at first sight predaceous habits, but the teeth, rather feeble in Diplodocus, and distinctly of the plantcutting type in other genera, put this out of the question. The high position of the impaired nasal opening, and the shortened nasal bones of Diplodocus are features indicative of aquatic habits, but the short-toed plantigrade limbs are absolutely adapted to terrestrial life, and we cannot well assume that such enormous brutes as Atlantosaurus could possibly have ventured into swampy ground.

SAUROPSIDA, a primary division of vertebrated animals, comprising the reptiles and birds, the other two corresponding divisions being the Ichthyopsida (fishes and amphibians) and the Mammalia. These divisions, set apart by Huxley, are in accordance with genetic relationships. For the similarities in structure between birds and reptiles, showing descent from a common sauropsidan ancestor, see ORNITHOLOGY; REPTILES.

SAURURÆ, the name given by Huxley to an order of the class of birds (see ORNITHOLOGY), constructed for the reception of Archeopteryx (q.v.), a fossil bird, the oldest and most primitive bird-fossil known, remarkable for its lizard-like tail.

SAURY-PIKE, or SKIPJACK, a fish (Scomberesox saurus), having a greatly elongated body covered with minute scales and the jaws prolonged into a long sharp beak. It is about 15 inches long, occurs plentifully on the north Atlantic coasts, frequenting inlets in shoals so dense that it may be taken in pailfuls. In order to escape the pursuit of the porpoise and large fishes it often leaps out of the water or skims rapidly along the surface. Consult Goode, American Fishes) (1888).

SAUSAGE, an article of food consisting of minced meat, highly seasoned, and enclosedgenerally in the intestines of some animal.

Among the Romans the sausages of Lucania were held in high repute; they were made of fresh pork and bacon finely minced with nuts of the stone-pine, and flavored with pepper, cummin seed, bay leaves, pot-herbs and garum. The Bologna sausages of Italy are still highly prized; they consist of veal, salt beef, salt pork and bacon, finely chopped up, seasoned with sage, mixed herbs, ground pepper and mixed spice. The smoked sausages of Germany are also considered as a delicacy by many; they are made of fat and lean pork preserved for about a week by salt, saltpetre, black pepper and alspice being rubbed into the meat; it is then cut small and mixed with some shreds of shallot or garlic, pressed into an ox-skin, wrapped in a fold or two of muslin and then smoked in the same way as ham. The pork sausages of our own country are made and seasoned in various ways to please different palates. See MEAT PACKING; MEATS AND Meat PRODUCTION.

SAUSSURE, sō-sür, Horace Bénédict de, Swiss savant: b. Conches, near Geneva, 17 Feb. 1740; d. Geneva, 22 Jan. 1799. He began his studies in natural science in Geneva and at 22 was appointed professor of philosophy. Later he was elected member of the Council of Two Hundred in the new legislature of his country. His name has since become famous from his services to geology, geodesy, the geographical distribution of plants and the applied sciences. His most remarkable work was done in the investigation of plant anatomy. In pursuit of his chosen studies he traveled through France, Holland, England, Italy and Sicily; thoroughly exploring the Alps, especially the glaciers of Chamounix, and was the first to reach the summit of Mont Blanc (1787) and to measure its height by barometric pressure. He is also the inventor of the electrometer, hydrometer and similar instruments. As founder and president of the Society of Arts of Geneva he did good service to the industries of that city. Among his writings the most important are Voyages dans les Alpes (1779) and 'Partie Pittoresque (1890).

SAUTERNE, sō-tern', a white Bordeaux wine of high repute, produced from grapes grown in the neighborhood of Sauternes, a village in the department of Gironde, near Bordeaux.

SAUVEUR, sō'vėr, Albert, American metallurgist: b. Louvain, Belgium, 21 June 1863. He studied at the Liége School of Mines, and, coming to the United States, was graduated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1889. He was chemist and metallurgist in different steel works until 1897; and in 1897-1905 he owned and directed the Boston Testing Laboratories. He lectured on metallurgy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1898-1903; was connected with the Harvard University faculty from 1899, and since 1905 has been professor of metallurgy there, also holding that position at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1917. In 1917 he became metallurgist with the American Aviation Commission in France and has also served since that time as metallurgical expert for the French Ministry of Munitions. He edited the Metallographist in 1898-1903 and the Iron and Steel Age in 1903-06. Author of 'Metallography of

VOL. 24-21

321

Iron and Steel' (1912); Germany and the European War' (1915).

SAVAGE, Edward, American portrait painter and engraver: b. Princeton, Mass., 26 Nov. 1761; d. there, 6 July 1817. He was a goldsmith and engraver in early life, but eventually turned to portrait painting, and established his reputation through his portraits of Washington, who sat for him several times, and of whom he in 1790 finished the portrait painted as a gift to Harvard. He studied abroad in 1791-94, under West in London and later in Italy. On his return to the United States he established a studio in Philadelphia and later painted in New York, maintaining there for many years an art gallery. He painted portraits of Thomas Jefferson, Anthony Wayne, Knox and other famous persons; finished R. E. Pine's Congress Voting Independence' (Philadelphia Historical Society), and executed 'Family Group at Mount Vernon (1796), as well as making many steel engravings of his own portraits.

SAVAGE, Henry Wilson, American theatrical manager: b. New York, 19th century. He was graduated at Harvard University in 1880 and afterward engaged in the theatrical business. He is president of the Henry W. Savage Company and of the Castle Square Opera Company, Boston; and is director of the National Association of Theatrical Producing Managers of America.

SAVAGE, James, American antiquarian: b. Boston, Mass., 13 July 1784; d. Boston, 8 March 1873. He was graduated from Harvard in 1803, studied law, was admitted to the bar, served in both branches of the legislature and then retired from political life to engage in literary work. He published numerous historical and political pamphlets and edited many works concerning New England history. His work is unfortunately marred by a partisan spirit and is somewhat confused in plan. He wrote Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, showing three Generations of those who came before May 1692' (4 vols., 1862-64), and edited Winthrop's 'History of New England' (1825-26); Paley's (Works) (5 vols., 1828), etc.

SAVAGE, Minot Judson, American Unitarian clergyman: b. Norridgewock, Me., 10 June 1841; d. 22 May 1918. He studied at Bowdoin College, and thereafter was graduated from Bangor Theological Seminary in 1864 and for three years (1864-67) was a Congregational home missionary, in California. There he established churches in Grass Valley and San Mateo. He occupied Congregational pulpits in Framingham, Mass., and Hannibal, Mo. (1867–69), (1869–73). Becoming a Unitarian he was made pastor of the Third Unitarian Church in Chicago (187374), and a year later became pastor of the church of the Unity, Boston, where he remained for 22 years. In 1896 he became pastor of the church of the Messiah, New York City, resigning the pastorate in May 1906. He represented the more radical element of his denomination and was the first clergyman who accepted "evolution." He was a voluminous writer upon ethical and religious subjects. Among his many books 'Christianity the Science of Mankind' (1873); The Religion of Evolution' (1876);

are