motive materially affected the method of teaching school gardening in Europe so that little has been gained by those teachers in America, who have gone abroad to study school gardening, that could be directly adapted in this country.

In 1904 Sir William Macdonald, of Montreal, Canada, established some 20 gardens in the various provinces of Canada. This became the initiative of a great interest in elementary garden work in Canada, and large grants on the part of the Dominion government have been made to encourage the work since that time.

In 1897, John H. Patterson, of Dayton, Ohio, founded a boys' garden at the National Cash Register Company grounds. This was the first and most successful children's garden known in America. Nearly all of the children's gardens, especially those conducted by welfare organizations and private individuals, have imitated this endeavor in Dayton, Ohio. For more than 20 years Mr. Patterson's effort there has grown and has become more thoroughly established with each season. Early in the century a number of normal schools established school gardens, notably the one at Hyannis, Mass., and it is reported that the Cook County Normal College, in Chicago, had a school garden in 1885. In 1900, the Cleveland Home Garden Association sold penny packets of seeds through the schools to the children of Cleveland. This originated a plan of seed distribution which has been taken up by a number of other cities as well as commercial houses and has greatly facilitated the movement. In 1902, Mrs. Henry Parsons, of New York, started the Children's Farm in the De Witt Clinton Park. This farm and three other large farms have been maintained by the Park Department of Manhattan ever since that time.

Cleveland, Ohio, and Philadelphia, Pa., were the first cities to formally accept school gardening as a part of the regular school work. These cities have conducted regular school garden work for more than a decade.

This

The United States Bureau of Education, in 1914, established a school garden department. It emphasized the home garden side, and termed it "School Supervised Home Gardens." work has grown, and has lately been given a large Federal grant to operate the United States School Garden army, so that in the last 25 years the school garden movement in America has become a distinct educational factor and a distinct economic gain in accelerating love and interest in garden work in thousands of schools and millions of homes in the United States.

School Garden Types. The Garden at School Indoors, the school can support the schoolroom window box and schoolroom flowerpot. The greenhouse on the roof of school buildings is the most practicable, and it may serve as the laboratory for nature study and the natural sciences as well as in part for physical science. Plants may be planted at school by the children and then taken to their homes to be grown, and later exhibited at the school. Class lessons in care of plants, planting seeds, transplanting, watering and other exercises can be easily conducted in the schoolroom. The outdoor garden at the school should be as near to the school building as possible.

391

It should be on school property and large enough to contain 40 plots, each plot not smaller than 50 square feet. This will accommodate one class, or grade, and presupposes that all children may have direct work in the school garden, at least during one grade of their school course. One teacher in a given city school should be the teacher of gardening, and preferably a teacher of elementary sciences as well. The garden work should be part of the curriculum, and credit for it should be given as for any other subject.

The best vegetables to begin with in school garden work are evidently the hardy, short season varieties. Beans, beets, kohl rabi, radish, Swiss chard, cabbage, tomatoes, carrots, lettuce, corn, are undoubtedly the best. The best flowers for school garden work are likewise the hardy annuals and long blooming varieties. Sweet alyssum, nasturtium, marigold, asters, zinnia and cosmos are leading varieties.

It is always best to fence the school garden, if not to protect against petty thievery, then it should serve to keep out dogs, cats and other small animals. The school garden should be supplied with running water; should have good drainage; should be in the sunlight and should be richly fertilized. The work may be done with few tools, but a hoe should be supplied for every pupil. Rakes, watering cans, hand weeders, spading forks and garden lines are the principal additional tools required.

The Garden at Home.- The garden at the home of the child has hardly been operated by the school long enough to develop acceptable standardization. There is a general agreement, however, that a home garden, managed by the schools, should be visited by teachers, or those who understand gardening, as frequently as possible. The child should keep a complete record of his garden work according to acceptable standards, and his record should be examined and rated. His garden should be rated at each visit, and instruction should be given in the garden, as far as possible, but the major part of the instruction must of necessity be given at the school garden, if the expense of home garden' work is to be kept within the possible appropriation. It would, therefore, seem that the school garden and home garden must go hand in hand if any high attainment in gardening is to be accomplished.

Management of School Gardens.—In the management of school gardens the point of view is important, and on account of agricultural demands the education of the child is very liable to be subordinated. The child is greater than the produce. In other words, it is much better that a child plant a row of radish seeds with his own hands, and cover it with his own hoe, than it is to have the teacher plant that row while the child looks on. The radishes planted by the teacher would undoubtedly do better than the radishes planted by the child, provided the skill of the teacher is what it should be, but the child is undoubtedly taught much better by doing every possible agricultural act himself in the school garden.

Individual Project. This is undoubtedly the very best means of facilitating successful school garden work. Every child who is able to do garden work should work out his own individual project or problem in agriculture on a plot of ground assigned for his sole use.

392

This individual plot of ground may vary in size according to the age, sex and experience of the child, as well as neighborhood limitations, from 50 square feet to 800 square feet. As a rule it is best that no individual worker grow less than five vegetables, presupposing that these five vegetables may be followed by four or five others at a second planting. This produce provides for educational experience and also for a continuity of interest. For example: If a child were to plant his entire plot to lettuce, he might take the entire crop of lettuce out on the 20th of June, and his interest, of course, could not be retained in his work during the rest of the

season.

Produce for the Child.- Each child should have the produce which he raises on his own individual plot. This gives educational experience and retains interest. When conducted by the school, the direct collections of money for produce is most objectionable. It, therefore, should not be undertaken. However if funds are greatly needed by a given agency undertaking school garden work, it would seem as if each individual worker might be taxed a certain percentage of his produce to maintain the common garden.

Course of Study.— One of the greatest hindrances to school garden work is that it has found such slow acceptance in the regular course of study of the school. This has doubtless been due to the fact that the schools are not in session during the chief growing season, which is summer. Shop work, cooking and other manual arts have been placed in the curriculum, and credit for attainment has been given to pupils. But not so generally with school gardening. School gardening can never come into its own until it is placed in the curriculum, either as an industrial art or as a natural science. Pupils who attain the desired standards should be given credit.

It,

School Program. Another thing that has hindered gardening in schools has been the fact that the work can be done outside of what are termed the regular school hours, so that many schools have failed to program school gardening at all as a regular exercise. therefore, loses value with teacher and pupil alike. It should be done continuously or not at all. Consequently, the movement has suffered greatly from gardens not properly attended to, which have grown up to weeds.

Garden Teacher. The school garden teacher should be one of the regular teachers in a given school. The departmental plan of teaching provides for sufficient specialization. The teacher of the sciences, as a rule, should have charge of school gardening.

then it is worth regular public support. The school appropriation for a given city should carry the school garden work. It is indeed unfortunate that welfare organizations have too frequently been entrusted with a burden too great for them to carry long, and hence valuable and devoted effort have frequently ended in dismal failure. Every city in the land with a population over 100,000 should employ a school garden director to administer this work.

The possibilities of food production in large cities where great suburban tracts have been divided up into partly improved city lots have grown out of the school garden development. In many cities large community gardens have been successfully managed. The people have formed a garden club and the nearest vacant lots have been divided into family plots of from 800 square feet to 12,000 square feet each. The features of the Community War Garden have been a number of small family gardens in one group, and these gardens have been upon vacant lots. Some few communities have been able to maintain the gardens in walking distance of homes. A great variety of management has resulted. A city department for food production and conservation should follow these food gardens in our cities. The growth of school gardens has been most striking. Nearly every city in the United States and Cañada now has some form of school gardening. The United States School Garden army reports an army of 1,500,000 children gardeners for 1918. VAN EVRIE KILPATRICK, Director of School Gardens, Department of Education, City of New York.

SCHOOL LUNCHES. See RETARDATION OF PUPILS.

SCHOOL NURSES. See RETARDATION OF

The

Support and Control.- If school gardening is worth while as an integral, educational factor,

SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL

for the year 1921-22 (the latest available). school savings banks have been established in approximately 5,000 school buildings in towns and cities throughout the United States. The enrollment in these schools aggregated 2,206,132; and the number of participants (depositors). was 1,295,607 or 60 per cent of the enrollment. Deposits during the year exceeded $5,500,000 and the balance due on 30 June 1922 was $6,518,171 with interest credited to the amount of $145,554.

SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL, The. Sheridan's The School, for Scandal' was produced 8 May 1777, by the author himself as manager and part owner of Drury Lane Theatre, which he had taken over some time before from Garrick. Unlike the earlier The Rivals' the play was an instant success. It ran 20 nights the first season; 65 nights the second season, and has held the stage ever since.

"The School for Scandal,' the only play of later date to challenge comparison with Congreve, may be studied as an index of dramatic tendencies since the Restoration. The movement for correcting the morals of the stage, traces of which were seen in The Way of the World,' have now culminated in a definite brand of technique. Though scandal is spoken in the play none is actually seen in the action. The polite subterfuges demanded by modern English taste have begun. The tradesman has been introduced into comedy. Moreover, though Sheridan ridicules sentiment, the primary action of the play revolves around a sentimental motive. Joseph Surface is a false sentimental hero, while Charles Surface is a true sentimental hero. Oliver and Rowley are characters from sentimental comedy.

"The School for Scandal' is of the school of Congreve once removed. Whereas Congreve conventionalizes life, Sheridan conventionalizes the stage. With Congreve, wit is the specific; with Sheridan it is entertainment. "The School for Scandal' is a crowded fabric of "situations" derived from a broad reading of English comedy and an intimate acquaintance with the stage. Much worked over in composition out of scattered scenes and different plays, the central idea of a school for scandal goes back to the cabal nights of Lady Wishfort in 'The Way of the World.' Action has become more important than speech, and events follow each other in rapid succession. There is little repartee. The brilliancy of give and take gives way to broken monologues. Dialogue serves not as a fencing of wits but as the rapid patter of characters manipulated through a foreordained intrigue. To keep the conversation running rapidly is the first requirement. Therefore a spirit of raillery is maintained.

When these things are said it must be admitted on the other side that the play occupies a significant position. It was the last of the comedies of manners and the first of the modern plays of entertainment. The former were written for the discriminating; the latter for the crowd. The plot is regular and expert in the handling of a crowded action. In theatrical "effects" the play has been a storehouse of devices for a century of writers of comedy. On account of its adjustment of old materials to the requirements of the new day the play has maintained vitality unabated to this day. Editions: Rae, W. F., ed., 'Sheridan's Plays now Printed as he Wrote Them' (1902);

293

SCHOOL SYSTEM, Public. See PUBLIC, or COMMON SCHOOLS.

SCHOOLCRAFT, skool'kräft, Henry Rowe, American ethnologist and author: b. Watervliet, Albany County, N. Y., 28 March 1793; d. Washington, D. C., 10 Dec. 1864. He was educated at Middlebury and Union colleges, in 1820 was made geologist to an exploring expedition under Gen. Lewis Cass to the Lake Superior copper region and the upper Mississippi, and in 1822 became Indian agent for the northwestern frontier, with headquarters at first at Sault Sainte Marie and later at Michilimackinac (or Mackinac). From 1828 to 1832 he was a member of the Michigan territorial legislature. He commanded in 1832 the expedition which discovered the sources of the Mississippi, and in 1836 concluded with the Indians about the lakes a treaty by which cession of 16,000,000 acres of land was made to the United States. Soon afterward he received the appointment of acting superintendent of Indian affairs and disbursing agent for the northern department. In 1847, he began the preparation, under government appointment, of his elaborate work, History and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States' (1851-57). For the first five volumes an appropriation of nearly $30,000 per volume was made by Congress; the sixth and last was published at the expense of the War Department. The work was finely printed, and illustrated by 336 plates. It was the first means of introducing Indian legend and tradition to the general reader and gained a considerable reputation as a work of scholarship. Parkman, however, whose opinion is of very high value, considers that the work was quite inadequately done; particularly in view of the unusual facilities placed at the author's disposal. Among Schoolcraft's other volumes are 'Algic Researches' (1839); 'Oneota; or Characteristics of the Red Race of America' (1844); 'Personal Memoirs of a Residence of 30 Years with the Indian Tribes (1851); and (Scenes and Adventures in the Semi-Alpine Regions of the Ozark Mountains (1853).

SCHOOLEY PENEPLAIN. See PENE

PLAIN.

SCHOOLS, Bible in the. The Bible may be used in schools for one or both of two quite distinct purposes. It may be used for the purpose of establishing or confirming religious convictions or it may be used simply to give familiarity with and appreciation of a great body of poetic and historic literature, the most important, perhaps, that the world has produced. The use of the Bible for the first of the purposes mentioned is, in the nature of things, restricted in all countries where there

394

is no established Christian church. In the United States where all sects and all denominations stand upon an equal footing, it would be manifestly improper to levy a general tax to maintain religious instruction, which, in many cases, would be heresy to some. In private institutions founded by particular religious organizations and maintained for the purpose of promoting and fostering particular religious sects, Bible instruction would be not only eminently fitting and proper, but, in fact, essential to the accomplishment of the purpose for which such schools exist.

In the early colonial days in the United States, schools were, for the most part, maintained by the churches. Religious instruction based on the Bible was, in the schools at that time, an essential part of the curriculum. But public education in the United States has now become thoroughly recognized as a State function and as a result religious instruction has been excluded from the public schools. In a few cases, for example, in New York City, the reading of the Bible without comment is a daily exercise required by law, but such cases are few. In most States of the American Union the reading of the Bible in the public schools without comment is permitted by the common law if no objection thereto is made, and the practice of such reading is quite general, but where the question has been raised, the decisions of the courts have been uniformly against the practice.

Victor M. Rice, State superintendent of public instruction in New York State in 1866, said that "the proper places in which to receive religious instructions are the churches and the Sunday schools." Judge Lyon of the Supreme Court of Wisconsin in an opinion given in 1890 holds that the reading of the Bible in the public schools constitutes sectarian instruction. Decisions of the same tenor have been given by superintendents Weaver, Gilmore, Van Dyke, Rice, Spencer and Ruggles of New York State, and similar opinions have been rendered in other States.

But this exclusion of religious and Bible instruction from the public schools has not in any degree lessened the belief in the importance of such instruction, but has resulted in a new movement, which has for its purpose a wider dissemination of knowledge regarding this great literature through study carried on outside the school, but still having certain relations to the school.

We are just beginning to appreciate the fact that knowledge and culture in any field may be acquired outside the school. Formal regulations have been adopted in many States for giving credit toward the completion of a high school course for study carried on outside the school and this plan has been extended in many States to include credit for Bible study. Such work is already definitely organized in the following States: Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia.

The plan adopted varies somewhat in the different States but in the main it includes the following definite features:

(1) A syllabus indicating definitely the parts

of the Bible that are to be studied and the points that are to receive special attention.

(2) A definite period of study at home or in Sunday school under the instruction of parents, Sunday school teachers, or ministers of the gospel.

(3) A written examination conducted at the school by the school authorities.

(4) The crediting of the subject, if the examination is successfully passed, toward a regular high school course.

In many cases the syllabus and the question papers are prepared by committees which contain Catholics, Protestants and Jews, and thic answer papers are read and rated by similar committees.

Courses have been arranged on this general plan covering full four years with specific assignments for each year.

Following is the outline of the course now in operation in the State of Colorado:

Course I. Heroes and Leaders of Israel. Course II. First Semester. The Friends and Followers of Jesus.

Second Semester. The Life and Labors of Jesus.

Course III. First Semester. Bible History. Second Semester. Biblical Literature. Course IV. Social Institutions and Social Application of Bible Teachings.

1. The Family and the Community.
2. The State and the Church.
3. The Industrial Order.

CHARLES F. WHEELOCK, Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education, The University of the State of New York.

SCHOOLS, Continuation. The term "continuation school" may properly be applied to any type of organized educational effort having for its purpose the continuation of the education of children or of adults after they have left the usual elementary or secondary schools as regular attendants and while they are engaged for part or the whole of their time in gainful occupations. Under this definition the term would include (1) night schools, (2) part-time schools, (3) special industrial schools carried on by business organizations. (4) correspondence schools, (5) University extension courses, (6) the educational work of the V. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., the Boy Scout Movement, the Girl Scout Movement and home reading circles of various kinds. There is a present tendency, however, to limit the term "continuation school" to schools offering part-time instruction to boys and girls under 18 years of age and who are engaged regularly in gainful occupations.

The United States Federal Board for Vocational Education gives official sanction to the following definitions:

"A part-time school is a school open to minors and adults who have entered upon employment. When the school aims to complete general education, it is designated a part-time continuation school; when it aims to increase skill and intelligence in a vocation other than that in which the pupils are employed, it is a part-time trade preparatory school; and when it provides training that is strictly supplementary and related to the employment of its pupils, it is a part-time extension schoo.."

The need for the existence of continuation schools is found in the fact that even under compulsory attendance laws, a large number of children of 14 years of age or over are obliged

to leave, school and go into industrial employment before they have completed even the elementary grammar grades, while the general education of those who leave school after having completed the grammar grades is frequently so defective that their opportunities for advancement after entering an industrial occupation are very limited. From the investigations of the Elementary Board for Vocational Education it appears that in the United States "there are about 5,000,000 children between 14 and 18 years of age out of school, and that practically all of the boys and a large proportion of the girls not at school in these ages are at work. A very large proportion of these workers have left the public school without completing an elementary education or preparing themselves for any specific vocation." Moreover, modern industrial conditions tend to make the kind of occupation open to this class of children extremely monotonous_and deadening to all intellectual activity. Such occupations consist usually of the repetition of a single simple operation or the operating of a single machine; hence, there is offered almost no opportunity for acquiring general knowledge of any trade as a whole and consequently almost no opportunity to progress in earning ability such as was afforded under the now almost obsolete apprentice system.

The principal specific purposes of schools organized to meet this situation are: (1) general education looking toward general culture, broader vision and better citizenship; (2) prevocational training and vocational guidance looking toward the better adjustment of the individual to his job; (3) training for a specific industry; (4) instruction supplementary to that received in the shop or factory practice in which the student is engaged, looking toward improvement in such practice; (5) instruction in homemaking for girls. The evening school was the earliest form of continuation school and such schools have been in existence in most European countries as well as in the United States for about 100 years. At the beginning such schools were intended to give instruction in the three R's only and were attended chiefly by those whose early education had been entirely neglected. Gradually the field covered has been extended until at present, in many cases, they offer complete high school courses in the subjects regularly offered in the day high schools, but the trend is toward industrial and commercial courses and homemaking. Evening schools, which are tax-supported, now exist in most of the cities and larger towns of the United States and of Europe. Attendance upon these schools is mostly voluntary, but certain classes of students who have failed to complete courses in elementary schools are required to attend either evening high schools or some other form of continuation schools.

One serious difficulty in the way of attaining the desired end of a continuation school through the evening high school is in the fact that the student fully employed during the day is not in physical or mental condition to bertefit to the fullest extent from evening study and instruction. To avoid this difficulty, parttime schools have been organized. In these schools students are occupied in regular remunerative employment for a portion of the regular working hours and are in school dur

895

ing the remaining working hours, work and school thus alternating. In some cases students are employed alternate half days and are in school alternate half days. In other cases entire days are given to work and alternate days to school. In still some other cases alternate weeks are given to school and to work. In this way a uniform attendance is secured time school students are divided into two equal groups. Students working in any particular shop, factory or business concern are divided into two groups which alternate, one group being in school, the other group being at work. In this way a uniform attendance is secured both in school and on the job thus permitting the employment of a constant teaching force and a constant working force. The special school organized and conducted by business concerns aims more particularly to give to the employees of the concern such instruction as will render them more efficient in the particular work which they are called upon to do. Such schools are of more recent development and are increasing in number. In these schools the usual procedure is to combine in each day's work some hours of instruction and some hours devoted to the regular occupation. The special schools conducted by the New York Central Railroad and by the Wanamaker stores are well-known examples of this sort of organization.

In some of the States, notably in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, statutes provide that children between 14 and 16 not in regular attendance at day schools, whether at work or not, must attend continuation classes for certain hours each week, and if such children are employed they must be released from employment during these hours, and the laws in these States also provide that schools must be established and maintained under public instruction and control for this purpose. Movements in several other States are already under way looking toward the enactment of similar laws. It is evident that the time is not far distant when provision will be made for the compulsory attendance upon some form of continuation school for all children up to 18 years of age who are not regularly in day schools, whether such children are employed or not, and that schools providing the opportunity for instruction of such children especially along vocational lines will become a part of the regular educational system of the country and will be under public supervision and control.

In most of the countries of Europe the parttime vocational school has reached a notable degree of development. For details concerning the development of this movement in the United States, reference is made to the reports of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C.

CHARLES F. WHEELOCK, Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education, The University of the State of New York.

SCHOOLS, Inspection of. Various agencies exist throughout the country for the visitation and inspection of schools. Many State universities employ an officer known as a high school visitor whose business it is to determine what schools shall be placed on the university's accredited list for entrance. Such an officer does not ordinarily have any legal