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authority but is usually a welcome visitor because of the desire of all ambitious high schools to be enrolled on the accredited list of their neighboring university. Private universities, colleges and college entrance boards also maintain like friendly relations with the secondary schools which prepare students for them. Systems of inspection are also maintained by sectarian organizations for schools under their jurisdiction.

Beyond these various private agencies, practically every State in the Union now makes attempt through its department of education or public instruction to inspect its schools. This authority is frequently exercised especially for the elementary and rural schools through county or township officers. In many States the power of the State department is limited both by statute and by the funds available for the purpose. The State of New York has perhaps the most thorough system of school inspection in the country both through the exercise of central and of delegated authority. The rural schools and the smaller union schools outside of cities and villages of a population of at least 5,000 are subject to the frequent inspection of a group of 207 district superintendents, who are in turn under the immediate supervision of the State department of education. The authority of the force of State inspectors may also be exercised in these schools by direction of the central office, but the State's immediate staff is concerned chiefly with the work of the secondary schools. A brief review of the working of this central system of inspections will present the problems common to all the States. New York's educational system is spreading its influence to other States. The examination system is the backbone of the educational scheme; in one form or another it constitutes the structural framework of the State's relations to its elementary and secondary schools and has an important bearing on the inspection work of the department. The inspection of schools is predicated upon the examination of students, and the valuation of the work of school systems, through the medium of examinations. The examination system inevitably brings to light the result of poor teaching and unwise administration and it is the distinct business of the inspectors with their first-hand knowledge of the weak spots to help schools to provide better teaching and to institute sounder administrative methods. Inspectors find that their work in the field is sharply divided between questions of administration and instruction. The large problem with which the department is confronted in the one-, two- and three-year academic schools, and in the full high schools in the union free-school districts outside of the villages and cities, is primarily one which calls for the qualities of a general practitioner rather than those of a specialist. Questions of sound organization, orderly procedure and definite purpose take precedence even over the always important question of the quality of the teaching. There are upward of 200 changes in principalships in these smaller schools every year. Many of these smaller

schools are in a special sense the wards of the State because their frequent changes in management and in entire teaching force as well make continuing local policy impossible. If their work is to be carried on coherently from year

to year and if purposeful results are to be secured, it must be through the immediate helpfulness of the general practitioners of the field staff of the department. The representative who goes into these schools need not be a specialist in this subject or that, but, like the country physician who treats a multitude of ills, he must be an accomplished general practitioner. He must know the courses of study, elementary and academic; he must know the ideals and the aspirations of the leading teachers of the State; he must know how to organize a school, how to lay out a program, how to conduct a recitation and how to observe a recitation politely, kindly and sympathetically. He must know how to correct without reproving, how to advise without complaining and how to praise without flattery. He must know the requirements of the mandatory statutes; he must know good housing from bad; he must know how and where to provide for library and laboratory. He must know human nature well enough and be trained keenly enough in a sensible diplomacy to be able to convince principals and teachers that he means at all times to help them; and he must have iron enough in his constitution, when occasion demands, to deal straight forwardly with a recalcitrant school board. In other words, he must use his good sense quite as much as his erudition.

The highly trained specialist finds a broader field of course in the more stably organized schools. In the larger union schools and in the high schools in the villages and cities, where questions of school administration are in the main matters of settled policy and are ably cared for by local supervisors, the department specialists find wider opportunity to aid teachers in their several groups of subjects, and to set up guideposts as possible attainable standards for all alert, progressive teachers. And the day is coming when the teaching profession will not have room for any others. It is here that the capacity of the field staff is put to its test on its scholarly side, and it is here that its service, if it is to be worth while, must in the long run be of the most significance. A body of trained men, each doing intensive work in a limited field, observing in the course of a year or two the best and the worst teaching in the State, must become in time a clearing-house, from which teachers who seek help may get inspiration and may find out what other successful teachers are doing. There are many schools, soundly organized, with thoroughly trained teachers, where the State cannot be of special service but where it can get help and suggestions to carry to other less fortunately situated schools. All that is best, it is the business of the State to distribute as widely and as generously as possible. See SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS; STATE SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION; UNIVERSITY OF THe State of NEW YORK, and related topics.

SCHOOLS, Instruction in Sex Hygiene in. The importance of the reproductive function in its relations to general hygiene, the alarming prevalence of venereal disease and the amount of damaging misinformation intentionally disseminated by vendors of patent medicines are among the most important reasons that have been urged for the giving of regular instruction in sex hygiene in schools. A feeling of delicacy regarding all reference to sex that

has been developed through centuries of custom, a lack of scientific knowledge of the subject on the part of ordinary teachers, the difficulty of securing reliable data from any considerable number of normal persons and the fear that conscious attention to sex will tend to aggravate rather than to ameliorate objectionable conditions are reasons urged in opposition to the giving of such instruction.

During the period from 1912 to 1915 the subject of instruction in sex hygiene was prominent in the programs of educational associations, and articles on this subject were not infrequent in educational periodicals and in the secular press. During the same period a considerable number of books were published treating various phases of the general question; but since 1915 the subject seems to have been dropped almost entirely and it does not appear that the agitation had any considerable results so far as concerns the introduction of such teaching into the elementary or secondary schools. The one tangible result of the agitation mentioned has been a more candid and fearless discussion in the public press of the extent and consequences of venereal diseases in such a way that this information is now being brought to the attention of all pupils and teachers who read current magazines and newspapers and in a manner that is not open to the principal objections urged against direct school instruction. The need for such direct school instruction in this phase of the subject is, therefore, largely removed.

It is very doubtful if we have yet reached a point where other and important phases of this subject may be properly and profitably introduced as a regular subject of instruction in the public elementary or secondary schools. While it is possible that the problem of general sex hygiene may at some time in the future be discussed in the public schools as scientifically and as frankly as we now discuss circulation, digestion and excretion, it is clear that such a course is not possible under present conditions.

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The best high schools are now laying a foundation for such instruction and are preparing the public mind for it by a frank treatment of the fundamental facts of sexual reproduction in plants and animals in connection with the study of botany and of general zoology. Most textbooks in these subjects now present the essential anatomical and physiological underlying this subject frankly, scientifically and in a manner that does not offend genuine modesty. It is doubtful whether the schools should attempt generally to go farther than this at the present time. The wise teacher of general hygiene will always impress upon pupils the sacredness of every organ and every function, the importance of cleanliness, of the avoidance of all excesses and abuses, and in that manner will be able to reach the end sought. The problem is not so much one of overcoming ignorance as one of establishing a due respect for the body as a whole. For the present it seems wise to leave more specific instruction to parents or to conferences of teachers with individual pupils after a full understanding between the teacher and the parent of such pupil.

CHARLES F. WHEELOCK, Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education, The University of the State of New York.

SCHOOLS OF DRAMA, Modern. There have been five great periods of dramatic production in Europe since the Middle Ages. The first took rise in England about three and a half centuries ago, its central figure being the immortal Shakespeare. The next was located in Spain. Temporally it was almost coincident with the first, and its two greatest exponents were Calderon and Lope de Vega. Then came the era of French classicism, represented by Corneille, Racine and Molière. Toward the end of the 18th century we have the period of German classicism, with Lessing, Schiller and Goethe. And within the last four decades we have witnessed the fifth great movement, which is the subject of the present article.

There is a big difference between the first four periods and the last, inasmuch as the former were all confined to particular nationalities, while the latter is cosmopolitan in character. The starting point of the modern movement is to be found in the works of Henrik Ibsen, the great Norwegian dramatist (18281906). Ibsen, indeed, may be considered the father of the modern drama. His worksamong which may be mentioned Ghosts,' 'A Doll's House, Rosmersholm' and 'The Wild Duck' are characterized by the perfection of their technique, their realistic nature and the ideas or truths which they convey. His central idea is the insistence on true and unhampered expression of the individual's personality. Contemporaneous with him we find two other great Scandinavian dramatists, the Norwegian Björnson ('A Bankruptcy, Beyond our Power,' etc.) and the Swedish Strindberg (The Father, Miss Julia,' 'Comrades, etc.). The best works of these also belonged to the realistic category.

From Scandinavia the movement spread in every direction. Hardly a country in Europe, indeed, which has not at present its constellation of dramatic geniuses. In France, to mention but a few, there are Lavedan, Porto-Riche, Hervieu, Brieux and Rostand. In Germany and Austria there are Hauptmann, Sudermann, Wedekind, Schnitzler and Hofmannsthal. England has produced Wilde, Shaw, Barker and Galsworthy; Spain is represented by Echegaray and Galdos, Italy by D'Annunzio and Giacosa; Holland has Heijermans, Belgium Maeterlinck, Russia claims Tolstoi, Gorky, Tchekoff and Andreyeff.

There are two main currents or schools by which the modern drama is represented. The first and most important is the realistic, the other the romantic or as it has been styled in contradistinction to a previous movement, the neo-romantic. The former is the characteristic product of the age that which is due to the impetus of Ibsen, and to which most of the writers mentioned, besides many others who have not been mentioned, claim allegiance. The nature of the realistic drama is perfectly expressed by its name. It is a form of art which aims at a faithful depiction of life, without falsification or idealization. In former times this had not been the chief aim. Most previous dramas belonged to the categories known as classic or romantic. The subject matter in many cases was semi-mythical, as in the old

Greek and classic French drama. The characters, if they were real at all, were preferentially drawn from the ranks of the distinguished and high-born; unusual situations and plots were the rule; idealizations were common, and the exalted, unnatural character of the presentation was expressed by the prevailing poetry of the dialogue. All this is changed in the modern realistic drama. The characters which are brought to view belong to every rank of society, even the most humble. The plot loses its artificial character, and we are presented with a natural development of life itself, such as we can witness about us on every hand. Exact directions are given by the author as to the appearance of the actors and the setting of the stage, so as to produce an illusion of reality. And the language takes the form of prose, frequently imitating in its peculiarities of dialect and its exclamations and hesitations the exact form of speech of ordinary, everyday people. Barker's Madras House,' for example, shows us people moving about and conversing just as they do in real life. The same is true of the many scenes from society life in the dramas of the French, examples of which may be found in Lavedan's 'Le Prince d'Aurec' and Donnay's 'The Other Danger.' Hauptmann's 'Weavers' and Galsworthy's 'Strife) exhibit the scenes of misery, suffering and revolt which are connected with labor troubles, Gorky's 'Night Shelter' portrays the lowest and most painful aspects of Russian city life. There is little plot to the majority of these plays, just an unrolling of experience and a depiction of character.

It is impossible to go into a detailed exposition of the many excellent dramas that have appeared under the sway of naturalistic ideas. Suffice it merely to name a few of the more important, in addition to those already cited. We shall confine ourselves, in the case of every writer, to a single play. Porto-Riche is the author of 'Amoureuse, Hervieu of La Course du Flambeau,' Becque has written 'Les Corbeaux, Brieux Les Hannetons.' In German countries Hauptmann has given us 'Fuhrmann Henschel, Sudermann Die Ehre,' Schnitzler 'Der einsame Weg,' Wedekind 'Frühling's Erwachen. Tolstoi, in Russia, is the author of "The Power of Darkness,' Giacosa in Italy of 'The Stronger. In England we have Shaw with 'Man and Superman,' Galsworthy with 'Justice, Barker with Waste.'

On this side of the ocean the naturalistic drama has not found embodiment in many works of superior literary value. In general, American plays do not make much pretense to literary worth, but are written solely for the stage. Many of the most effective are of a local and historic nature, and make telling use of picturesque, scenic and ethnographic backgrounds. Such are Bronson Howard's 'Shenandoah,' Herne's 'Shore Acres' and Moody's 'Great Divide.' Recently, however, there have been promising signs of a genuine literary awakening. And there has been a revival, following the example of England, of dramatic pageants. These are open-air performances, generally of a historic or symbolical nature, in which great numbers of people take part.

As already mentioned, the modern drama has been characterized by a return to romanticism, in addition to the development along

naturalistic lines. The chief exponents of this movement have been Rostand in France, Maeterlinck in Belgium, Hauptmann in Germany, Hofmannsthal in Austria, Yeats, Synge and Lady Gregory in Ireland. Rostand is famous through his 'Cyrano de Bergerac,' likewise his 'Chantecler.' Maeterlinck has written, among other works, Pélléas et Mélisande and The Blue Bird.' Hauptmann has given us 'Die versunkene Glocke' and 'Der arme Heinrich. In part the movement in question has been due to the natural tendencies of the individuals who have furthered it, the romantic disposition being one which is always latent in human nature; in part it has had its source in a reaction against naturalism.

Like all great art movements, the realistic drama is an outgrowth of the age, and forms a faithful mirror of many of its constituent currents. Thus the scientific spirit finds a reflection in its exact observation and accurate description. There is an incident in Hauptmann's 'Einsame Menschen,' for example, which neatly illustrates the principle involved. Johannes Vockerat has just had a conversation with his wife and a friend, in which he has evinced considerable irritability. He leaves the room and steps out on the veranda, where he engages in calisthenic exercises. His wife and friend meanwhile continue the conversation, when suddenly the door opens and Johannes calls in: "Children, I was somewhat irritable. Be merry! I am so too." Though nothing to that effect is said either by the author or the personages of the play, it is evident that the change of feeling is due to the effect of the physical exercise.

The psychological trend of modern thought is also reflected in the realistic drama and comes to view in the mental and emotional nature of the conflicts portrayed. Of action there may be little-nothing but thought and emotion, expressed in words and gestures. The democratic conception of life is apparent in the treatment of the humblest aspects of existence, the prevailing interest in social questions in the nature of the problems that are considered. In general, the subject matter of the dramas is intensely modern. Except for the few scattered romantic plays, there is no looking backward to ages long gone by. Modern labor conditions, modern relations between husband and wife, modern demands for the emancipation of woman these and many other subjects equally alive form the basis of dramatic treatment.

Along with this community of subject matter and treatment, however, there are national differences between the dramas that are equally pronounced. Thus, there is a strangeness of conduct on the part of the characters in Scandinavian plays that is typical. Ibsen's men and women are subject to morbidly exalted courses of action. Strindberg's people are swayed_by the most peculiar reversals of feeling. The question is justified whether these extravagant manifestations may not be brought into relation with the unusual aspects of nature in Scandinavian countries. As Björnson says ('Beyond our Power): "There is something in nature here which demands the unusual of us, also. Nature herself is beyond all reasonable limits. We have a night which lasts almost the whole winter. And our day lasts almost all summer. Swarms of birds in millions; 'shoals of

fish as long as from Paris to Strassburg) mountains that rise sheer out of the sea. They don't resemble any other mountains. And the whole Atlantic breaks upon them." The question is also apropos whether all this is related likewise to the strangeness of harmony in the compositions of Grieg. In general there is a remarkable analogy between the literary productions of a country and its musical compositions.

This is evident when we come to the dramatic works of the Russians. If Scandinavian plays are eccentric, those of the Russians, like their music, are pitched in the minor key. The outlook upon life, as in Russian novels as well, is melancholy and pessimistic. Tolstoi's Power of Darkness' and Gorky's 'Night Shelter' show us humanity at its lowest depths, Andreyeff's 'Life of Man' concentrates into a single picture all the tragedy of existence. If we wish for a more specific analogy from the realm of music, we need but turn to the works of Tschaikowsky, and especially to his immortal Pathetic Symphony.

Spanish plays make constant use of the motif of honor, a fact which harmonizes with Spanish conceptions of life. And in Italy D'Annunzio reflects the passion for beauty which is inherent in the Italian race.

The Irishmen Wilde and Shaw exhibit a talent for brilliant wit and satire. Characteristic as this is likewise of their countryman Sheridan, it must be regarded as typical of the race. And as we meet with similar manifestations throughout the literature of France, it may be regarded as typical of the Celtic people as a whole.

Especially pronounced is the contrast between French and Teutonic dramas. In spite of their naturalism, the French still retain the agreeable exterior. Thoroughly discordant and repulsive aspects of life are rarely brought before us. The personages that are exhibited are mostly drawn from the well-to-do if not aristocratic circles of society. There is the glitter of wealth, education and social eminence. Likewise the conversation is characteristically lucid and polished. The subject matter of dramatic exposition is largely exhausted by the passion of love. Donnay confines himself entirely to this subject, Porto-Riche has collected his plays under the title of "Théâtre d'Amour.) Furthermore, it is the illicit side of love that is preferentially dwelt upon. The characters in the plays are likely to be few, the number of plays of a particular playwright limited. The style is exquisite, the flow of dialogue smooth and connected. It is a drama that reminds us of the salon: polished, fastidious, well-arranged.

Far different in the north. Here it is as if we passed from the restraints of polite society into the boundless freedom of nature. There is a wider range of subject matter, a greater seriousness of interests. The plays are more numerous, the characters apt to be many, the words suggestive and replete with significance. Ibsen's Emperor and Galilean. Hauptmann's 'Florian Geyer,' Galsworthy's 'Strife) are cast in large molds that are rarely found in the south. The subject of love, though by no means neglected, does not hold such exclusive sway. It is merely one of a great number of subjects. In general, there is a breadth and variety of material and interest that are thoroughly

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Shakesperean. Hauptmann, especially, illustrates this trait, as his works exhibit every shade of dramatic expression, from harrowing tragedy to light comedy, from crass realism to mystic romanticism. Likewise he is a wonderful portrayer of character. His men and women remind us of the realistic pictures of the old Dutch and German schools, with their sharply defined, expressive countenances. And there is a brooding, introspective tendency which is thoroughly German. In contrast we have the Viennese Schnitzler. If Hauptmann represents the sombre North German, Schnitzler stands for the mild, light-hearted Austrian. There is a delicacy and sweetness to his works that remind us of the tender strains of his countryman Mozart.

The realistic drama, like the music-drama of Richard Wagner, has been the subject of many controversies. Special theatres were at first required for its presentation (Théâtre Libre in Paris, Freie Bühne in Berlin), as the weight of tradition was strong against it, and many plays were prohibited by the censor. Even to-day there are voices that are raised against its excesses of naturalism. But whatever may be the verdict of posterity, whatever the direction which dramatic expression may take in the future, it has been an honest, inspired form of art, and has given voice to a demand of thought and feeling which was bound to find vent. In art, as in heaven, there are many mansions. There are countless ways of expressing beauty, and no one of these has an exclusive right to be considered legitimate. Furthermore, there is a temporal sequence of expressions which seems to be in accord with evolutionary laws. One form of beauty gives way to another with a sort of necessity, and the very fact that a school is in the ascendant to-day, far from being a reason why it should remain so to-morrow, is the strongest reason why it should yield. So naturalism came as a legitimate successor of previous forms of drama. It will doubtless be superseded by forms that are different. But it will not pass by without leaving its trace behind. As Guyau says, every new work of art changes the very conditions of beauty. So likewise with the works of the naturalistic school. They have added an element of truthfulness and seriousness which will never be entirely lost, but will have its influence on all the works that are to follow.

many cities, including Cologne and Spires, where he studied architecture and perspective. He was received kindly by Dürer in Nuremberg. At 22 he passed through Carinthia to Venice, and thence to Palestine. For three years he remained within the walls of Jerusalem sketching views of the city and surrounding country. On his return he spent some time at Rhodes, and afterward at Rome, studying the works of Raphael, Michelangelo and Giulio, till Adrian VI, a native of Utrecht, ascended the papal chair in 1522, and committed to him the superintendence of the Belvedere. The death of Adrian the following year induced Schoorl to return home, which he did by way of France. He now executed many splendid pieces in Utrecht, afterward in Haarlem and from time to time in other cities in the Netherlands. He has been compared with Jan van Eyck, whom he equaled in splendor and truth of coloring, in expression, in warmth of representation; and, at the most, was inferior to him only in the execution of particular parts. Unhappily the rage of the fanatics in a subsequent age for destroying pictures was fatal to many of his most valuable works. Consult Toman, (Studien über Jan van Scorel) (1889).

SCHOPENHAUER, shō'pen-how-ĕr, Arthur, German philosopher and man of letters: b. Dantzig, 22 Feb. 1788; d. Frankfort-on-the Main, 21 Sept. 1860. He was of Dutch ancestry on both sides. His father, Hendrick Schopenhauer, was a rich merchant, whose love of freedom was so great that he removed to Hamburg in 1793, when his native city, Dantzig, lost its independence and became a part of Prussia. Schopenhauer's mother, whose maiden name was Johanna Troisner, was a woman of artistic temperament and literary aspirations, some 20 years younger than her husband. After his death in 1805, she removed to Weimar, becoming a member of the literary coterie there, and gaining a reputation as a popular novelist. Heinrich Schopenhauer, proud of his position as an independent merchant, determined that his son should succeed him as the head of the business which he had established. With this object in view, he had him instructed in modern languages, especially in French and English, and took the boy with him on extensive trips through England, France, Holland and Germany, in order to give him a knowledge of the world. When Schopenhauer was 17 his father placed him in a business house in Hamburg. The work was distasteful to him and after his father's death, when he had vainly attempted to accommodate himself to a business career, he decided to follow his bent and devote himself to study. After receiving the necessary preliminary training at Gotha and Weimar, he entered the university at Göttingen in 1809, registering as a student in medicine. Later he studied in Berlin, where he heard lectures from Fichte and Schleiermacher, and finally received the degree of doctor of philosophy from the University of Jena in 1813, on submitting a thesis on "The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason." After a residence of several years in Dresden, where he wrote his chief work, 'The World as Will and Idea' (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, 1818), and a visit to Italy, he qualified as private lecturer (Privat Docent) in the University of Berlin. He came

there with the most extravagant estimate of the importance of his own views, and with the greatest contempt for the prevailing idealistic philosophy, of which Hegel, then at the height of his popularity at Berlin, was the chief representative. Schopenhauer announced lectures at the same hour when Hegel's principal course was given. As a result, his audience was very small; and to make matters worse, his style of lecturing was not popular; his audience fell off and the lectures had to be discontinued before the end of the semester. This embittered him still more, and he imagined that he was the victim of a deliberate plot on the part of various "school philosophers" who had conspired to prevent his views from obtaining a hearing. He made a second visit to Italy, lasting almost three years, but returned to Berlin in 1825, residing here, until 1831, when the epidemic of cholera that carried off Hegel drove him to Frankfort. Here (with the exception of a short stay at Mannheim) he continued until his death. Toward the close of his life his philosophy began to attract popular attention, and Schopenhauer eagerly received the admiration and recognition of a circle of devoted disciples. His old age was the most happy and serene period of his life, though his estimate of his own work was so high that it was not possible to satisfy his demands for recognition and adulation.

Schopenhauer maintains that philosophy cannot be a science; that is, a body of truths derived through logical processes and open to anyone to learn with more or less trouble; but true philosophy is art, a revelation dependent on the intuitive insight of the man of genius. As in the case of a picture or musical composition, one will only perceive in a system of philosophy what one has the capacity to perceive. "There is no one philosophy," says Schopenhauer, "existing or acceptable for everybody. The difference in grades of intelligence is too great for that. The true philosophy, when it makes its appearance, will only command the attention of a few heads of the first order." To the circle of men of genius, then, Schopenhauer confidently claims to belong, and he expresses his contempt for the procedure of the savants who vainly seek philosophical truth by logical processes and accumulations of erudition. For Plato and Kant, Schopenhauer has the greatest admiration and his own thoughts are constantly connected with their ideas. In Plato what attracted him especially was the doctrine of an ideal world and its contrast with the unreality of the world of sensible phenomena. Kant maintained the same contrast and Schopenhauer always claims to be the true successor of Kant, although he replaces the latter's table of 12 categories with the single principle of "sufficient reason," which appears in a fourfold form. With regard to Kant's doctrine that we cannot know the true nature of reality, Schopenhauer also differs from his master. Science is, indeed, limited to the world of phenomena. But we can know the nature of reality by a more direct and intimate method than that which science pursues. In the immediate consciousness of myself I know myself as will; this is the side, the true reality of what appears objectively as body. After the analogy with ouselves everything is to be interpreted: in ourselves,