4

Europe; Onega, Peipus and Ilmen. Almost all the other lakes of any size belong to the basin of the Volga; chief of these are the BieloOzero, in the government of Novgorod, and the Koubinsköe, in the government of Vologda. In the south are several large salt lakes, among them the Elton and the Khaki Salt Marsh, in the Government of Astrakhan.

Geology. A vast tract of gneiss and other crystalline schists, penetrated by granite, extends east from the Gulf of Bothnia, and north from the Gulf of Finland over the whole principality of the latter name, the western part of the government of Olonets, and the extensive part of the government of Archangel which is isolated from its main body by the White Sea. The only other region where a similar development occurs is in the south, where a large granitic steppe stretches in a southeast direction. It begins near Ovrutch, in the northeast of the government of Volhynia, covers the far greater part of the government of Kiev, as much of the government of Podolsk as lies north of the Bug, the northern half of the government of Kherson, the west and south of Ekaterinoslav, and a part of Taurida, and terminates in Ukraine just before reaching the shores of the Sea of Azov, from which it is excluded by a narrow belt of Tertiary marls and limestone. In the east, however, and along the whole crest of the Ural Mountains, from their commencement on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and almost continuously southward to their last ramifications, granite of more recent origin than that already mentioned occurs, in connection with other eruptive rocks of greenstone, porphyry, syenite, serpentine, etc. These rocks are overlain on both sides of the chain by metamorphic schists, forming long and narrow belts nearly parallel with its principal axis. Immediately to the west appears a similar belt of Silurian strata, which, where lowest in the series, is in the state of chloritic and talcose schists. The only other locality where the Silurian system receives a marked development is on the southern shores of the Gulf of Finland, where it stretches from its western extremity east along the governments of Esthonia and Petrograd, and is then continued across the isthmus between the eastern extremity of the gulf and Lake Ladoga, and along the southern and southeastern shores of that lake. In immediate contact with this Silurian formation on the south, but on a much more magnificent scale of development, appears the Devonian system, or Old Red Sandstone. The main body of this formation begins near the southeastern shores of the Baltic, and gradually widens out with its northeastern and southeastern sides, so as to assume the shape of a wedge. It then forms a wide fork, sending one of its branches northeast across Lake Onega, and along Archangel Bay to the northwestern extremity of Mezen Bay, and the other southeast to the northwestern frontiers of Voronezh. It thus covers continuously the whole of the governments of Kurland, Livonia, Vitebsk and Pskof, and parts of Vilna, Minsk, Mohilef and Smolensk, on the one side, and of Petrograd and Novgorod on the other; while its northeast branch traverses Olonets, and penetrates into Archangel; and its southeast branch stretches over considerable parts of Kaluga, Orel and Tula. The only other localities in which the same formation occurs

is as a belt stretching south-southeast from the eastern coast of the Gulf of Tcheskaia in the Arctic Ocean, and in a longer but narrower belt on the western side of the Ural chain, where it immediately overlies the Silurian formation already mentioned. The formation next in order is the Carboniferous. The main body of it lies within the above fork of the Old Red Sandstone, and in immediate contact with it, and then keeping parallel with the northeast branch of the fork, is continued in the same direction to its termination in Mezen Bay. It occupies the whole of the government of Tver, the capital of which is situated near its centre; and large parts of Smolensk, Kaluga, Tula and Riazan on the one side, and of Novgorod and Olonets on the other. The government of Moscow is situated in the very heart of it, and that of Vladimir on its eastern side. It is evidently continued beneath these governments and covers part of their surface, the other and far greater part being covered by oolite or Jura limestone. The Carboniferous system occurs in two other distant and isolated localities; the one in the south, a little north of the Sea of Azov, where it occupies the eastern part of the government of Ekaterinoslav, and the western extremity of that of Don Cossacks, and where, too, the coal forming the characteristic mineral of the system is partially worked by pits; the other locality is on the western side of the Ural chain, where, in the ascending series, it succeeds the Silurian and Devonian systems, and has a larger development than either of them. This development of the Carboniferous system on the side of the Ural chain, and the still larger development above described as existing in the governments of Smolensk, Kaluga, etc., forms the opposite boundaries of a system which in European Russia is highly developed; and to which from the large space which it covers in Perm and the contiguous governments, the name of the Permian system has been given. Its rocks belong to the upper part of the coal measures and consist chiefly of magnesian limestone and new red sandstone. The latter name is still often applied to the whole system. The Permian system extends over the governments of Kostroma, Viatka and Kazan, and large parts of Archangel, Vologda, Yaroslav, NijniNovgorod, Simbirsk, Orenburg and Perm. In the north of the governments of Kostroma and Viatka, and more especially in the part of Vologda between the towns of Nikolsk and UstSisolsk, it disappears for a time beneath strata belonging to the Jurassic or oolitic system. This system is developed partially in several other localities, and very largely in the northeast of the government of Archangel. Immediately above it in the geological series is the Cretaceous system, of which the principal localities are Chernigov, Orel, Kursk, Kharkov, and Voronezh, near the centre; Volhynia and a small part of Poland in the west; and a long tract along the northern base of the Caucasus. The rocks next in succession belong to the Tertiary formation, which in both its Eocene and Miocene periods is very largely developed. Strata of the Eocene period, beginning in the east in the government of Simbirsk, stretch west over the greater part of the governments of Penza and Tambov, then, after a considerable interruption, reappear on the frontiers of Kursk and Kharkov, cover the far greater part

of the governments of Chernigov and Poltava, and are thence continued without interruption into the governments of Mohilev, Minsk and Grodno. The Miocene period has its chief developments in Volhynia, Podolsk and Bessarabia. Beds of still more recent formation may be traced in the limestones, marls and clays on the northwestern shores of the Black Sea, on the far greater part of the Peninsula of the Crimea, on the eastern and northern shores of the Sea of Azov, on the low flats along the western and northern shores of the Caspian, and the low, sandy steppes of Astrakhan. Mere alluvial deposits, of comparatively recent date, are to be found in a greater or less degree at the mouths of all the rivers, and are particularly discernible in the great estuary of the Pechora. Vast numbers of erratic blocks and similar drift are spread over the greater part of northern Russia, evidently transported from Finland, Lapland and Sweden.

Climate. As the country extends over 35 degrees of latitude, from the warmer regions of the temperate far into the regions of the frozen zone, it exhibits several marked diversities of climate, usually considered in four divisions — a polar region, including all the country north of lat. 67°; a cold region, extending from lat. 67° to 57° N.; a temperate region, from lat. 57° to 50° N.; and a warm region, from lat. 50° to 37° N. The characteristic features of the climate in general are a greater coldness and variableness than is common under the same latitudes in the more westerly parts of Europe. The mean annual temperature of the upper part of the Norwegian Coast to its extremity at the North Cape is above the freezing point, whereas a considerable portion of Russia within the same, and even in a lower latitude, is below it. This is true of the whole of Russian Lapland as far south as 66°; and to the east of the White Sea the thermal line, indicating a mean annual temperature of freezing, descends so rapidly that on reaching the Ural Mountains it is found to be as low as 60°. The region to which the name of cold has been given has a mean annual temperature varying between 32° and 40°, but very unequally divided throughout the year, the cold in winter often sinking the thermometer to 30° below zero, or 62° below freezing, while the summer heat often raises it above 80°. At Petrograd considerably below the centre of this region, the mean annual temperature is rather above 40°; on the other hand, that of Kazan, situated at the very south extremity of the region, but much farther inland, is rather below 36°. The temperate region, situated between lat. 57° and 50° N., has a mean annual temperature varying from 40° to 50°, and includes within it the far finest part of the Russian territory, though even there the thermometer has a very wide range, the summer heat, which suffices to grow melons and similar fruits in the open field, being often succeeded by very rigorous winters. The warm region, extending from 50° southward, well merits the name from its extreme summer heats, the thermometer in June and July standing commonly about 100°, and often considerably higher. It is not, however, free from the remarkable contrasts which a Russian summer and a Russian winter exhibit; for the Sea of Azov, situated almost in the heart of this region, usually freezes about the beginning of

5

November and is seldom open again before the beginning of April. In all the countries bordering on the shores of the Baltic Sea and the Arctic Ocean, and bounded on the west and north by the basin of the Volga, the air is charged with a superabundance of moisture, which descends in mists and frequent falls of rain or snow. Toward the centre, and still farther east, the superabundance of moisture disappears, though enough still remains to keep vegetation in full vigor even at the hottest season. Still farther south the want of rain is often felt and long-continued droughts do frequent mischief. In general, however, the climates of all the regions are not unfavorable to health.

Forestry and Flora.- Forests are found chiefly in the more northern districts, particularly Archangel, Vologda and Perm, and cover about 39 per cent of the total area of European Russia. In many of the central and southern governments a deficiency of timber is seriously felt and many extraordinary expedients are resorted to in order to obtain adequate supplies of fuel. The districts most imperfectly provided with wood are Esthonia, Bessarabia, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav and Astrakhan. The prevailing trees of the northern forests are fir, larch, alder and birch. The oak is seldom found beyond lat. 61°. A considerable proportion of the surface still continues almost in a state of nature; and, where it is well wooded, it is a question whether any other mode of occupation would be equally productive. Russia possesses about 3,400 species of phanerogamous plants, but the examination which botanists have made is incomplete and it is probable that many remain to be discovered.

The forest area of European Russia covers a territory of 474,000,000 acres. In the Ural Mountain region forests cover 70 per cent of the total area. In 1917 the revenues derived from the state forests amounted to 111,206,000 roubles (about $55,603,000); the expenses amounted to 41,592,000 roubles ($20,796,000), leaving a net profit of 69,614,000 roubles ($34,807,000).

Fauna.-Animals, both domestic and wild, are numerous in Russia. Among the latter are the bear, the wolf, wild hog, the desman, the mole-rat, the saiga, the bobak or Russian marmot, the elk, the bison, the lynx and various animals which are hunted for their furs. Wild fowl abound, particularly near the mouths of rivers; among them the pelican frequents the shores of the Black Sea. Both on the coasts and in the rivers a great number of productive fisheries are carried on. In the Arctic Ocean whales are killed and vast numbers of seals are taken. The rivers of the Caspian, particularly the Ural and Volga, and the Sea of Azov, are celebrated for their sturgeon. In the same quarters are also important salmon fisheries. Reptiles are few and mostly innocuous.

Land Tenure.- Under the empire the political divisions of the Russian people comprised numerous grades of nobility, which were partly hereditary and partly acquired by military and civil service, especially the former, military rank being most highly prized. The clergy, both regular and secular, formed a separate privileged order. The higher clergy were formerly possessed of great wealth, but much of their property was confiscated by Catherine II, who compensated them by state pensions. Pre

vious to the year 1861 the mass of the people were serfs subject to the proprietors of the soil. The emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I took the same initial steps toward the emancipation of this class; but a bold and complete scheme of emancipation was begun and carried out by Alexander II. The decree of emancipation was dated 3 March 1861 and began to come into execution within two years. There were about 22,000,000 of serfs belonging to private proprietors and rather more than that number on the crown lands. By an imperial decree of 8 July 1863, lands were granted to the peasants on all the estates of the Crown on a 49 years' rental equal to the former poll-tax and as a freehold estate at the expiration of this period. A similar arrangement was made on behalf of the peasants on the lands of private proprietors. The redemption money of the serfs with their land was estimated at 163 years' purchase of their annual produce. Twenty per cent of this had to be paid by the serfs on procuring their emancipation, the remaining 80 per cent was guaranteed by the goyernment, which levied it from the peasantry in a tax extending over 49 years. The emancipation of all the serfs on these terms was arranged for by July 1865, and from that date this form of servitude ceased to exist in Russia. From this change until 1917 the cultivable land in Russia was mainly distributed among three classes. The Crown held nearly 35 per cent, the emancipated peasants about 20, while the remainder, with the exception of mines and town lands, remained in the hands of the nobility and other landed proprietors. Soon after their advent to power in November 1917 the Bolsheviki undertook the solution of the land question. All private ownership was declared to be henceforth null; the land was nationalized and given to the people who cultivated it. The large estates of the nobility, all the lands belonging to the state and to the Church were left to the disposition of local committees pending a decision of the Constituent Assembly. Mines, forests and great waterways became the property of the state; while lesser forests and waterways were turned over to local communes.

Bibliography. GENERAL: Aleksinskü, Grigorii, Modern Russia' (translated by Bernard Miall, London 1913); Baring, Maurice, The Mainsprings of Russia' (London and New York 1914); Bond, Sir Edward A. (ed.), 'Russia at the Close of the Sixteenth Century (London 1856); Child, Richard Washburn, Potential Russia' (New York 1916); Drage, Geoffrey, 'Russian Affairs (London 1904); Duff, James (ed.), 'Russian Realities and Problems (by Paul Milyoukov, Peter Struve, A. Lappo-Danilevsky, Roman Dmowski, and Harold Williams, Cambridge, England 1917); Fanning, Clara Elizabeth, Selected Articles on Russia (New York 1918); Graham, Stephen, Russia and the World' (ib., 1915); Hume, George, Thirty-Five Years in Russia' (London 1914); Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole (Henry Jean Baptiste Anatole), The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians (translated from the 3d French edition with annotations by Z. A. Ragozin, New York 1902-05); Lethbridge, Mrs. Marjorie Colt (Byrne), 'The Soul of the Russian' (New York 1916); Miliukov, Pavel Nikolaevich, 'Russia and its Crisis (Chicago 1906); Souiny-Seydlitz, Leonie Ida Philipovna,

'Russia of Yesterday and To-morrow' (New York 1917); Stephens, Winifred (ed.), 'The Soul of Russia) (London 1916).

ASIATIC RELATIONS: Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, The Russian Advance (New York 1903); Meakin, Annette M., 'In Russian Turkestan) (London 1903); Popowski, Józef, 'The Rival Powers in Central Asia' (Westminster 1893); Simpson, Bertram Lenox, The Coming Struggle in Eastern Asia' (London 1908); Campbell, Jane Maud, 'Selected List of Russian Books' (Chicago 1916); Herberstein, Sigmund, Notes upon Russia,' being a translation of the earliest account of that country, entitled 'Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii) (Hakluyt Society Publications, 1851-52); Aleksinskii, G., 'Russia and Europe' (translated by B. Miall, New York 1917); Jarintzov, Nadine, 'Russia: The Country of Extremes' (ib. 1914); Mackail, John William, 'Russia's Gift to the World' (rev. ed., New York 1917); Sarolea, Charles, 'Great Russia, Her Achievement and Promise' (ib. 1916); Vinogradov, Pavel Gavrilovich, The Russian Problem' (London 1914); Wiener, Leo, 'An Interpretation of the Russian People,' contains a bibliography (New York 1915); Bain, Robert Nisbet, 'The Pupils of Peter the Great: A History of the Russian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740' (Westminster 1897); Ballou, Maturin Murray, 'Due North; or, Glimpses of Scandinavia and Russia' (Boston 1887); Buel, James W., 'A Nemesis of Misgovernment (Philadelphia 1899); Dobson, George, 'Russia' (London 1913); Eastlake, Elizabeth, 'A Residence on the Shores of the Baltic' (London 1841); Geddie, John, 'The Russian Empire: Historical and Descriptive' (New York 1882); Graham, Stephen, A Vagabond in the Caucasus' (New York 1911); Hubback, John H., 'Russian Realities (London 1915); Reeves, Francis Brewster, Russia Then and Now, 1892-1917) (New York 1917); Reynolds, Rothay,. 'My Slav Friends' (London 1916); Sears, Robert, 'An Illustrated Description of the Russian Empire; Embracing its Geographical Features, Political Divisions, Principal Cities and Towns, Manners and Customs, Historic Summary, etc.) (New York 1855); Beazley, Charles Raymond, Russia from the Varangians to the Bolsheviks (Oxford 1918); Cazalet, Lucy, 'Short History of Russia' (Oxford 1915); Krausse, Alexis Sidney, Russia in Asia; a Record and a Study, 1558-1899) (New York 1900); Munro, H. H., "The Rise of the Russian Empire' (London 1900); Poole, Ernest, 'The Dark People: Russia's Crisis' (New York 1918); Russell, Charles Edward, Unchained Russia' (ib. 1918); The Russian Year-Book.'

JOHN B. MCDONNELL,

Editorial Staff of The Americana.

2. RUSSIAN HISTORY. The Russian Slavs were one of the Asiatic tribes designated by the Greeks, "Scythians," who in unknown times immigrated into the vast plains of eastern Europe. They had settled near lakes and rivers in the primitive forests of the region extending east and west from lakes Ilmer and Chud to the lower banks of the Dnieper and the Dniester. There were other East-Slavonic tribes the Lithuanians, west, and the Finns north of them, while the Turks and Tartars lived in the southeast. The Russian Slavs lived

in small communistic and patriarchic groups governed by the Vieche (a council of family elders) until the Variagi, or Northmen, helped them to form an independent state. No exact data is available concerning its origin. It is unknown whether the Slavs submitted to the Northmen of their own accord or whether they were forced into submission by conquest. According to the chronicle, the state originated in 862 when the three Varangian brothers, Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, became rulers of the Slavonic Stenm clan, the country began to be called Russia, and Novgorod became the centre of the principality. Simultaneously another centre, Kiev, sprang up in the south where two Varangian brothers, Askold and Dir, had formed another principality. Upon the death of Rurik's brothers, their territory also passed to him and he assumed the title Grand Prince. The successor of Rurik was his relative Oleg (879) whose wisdom and steady success gave him the surname "Vieschi," which means "soothsayer." He extended his rule over all the Slavonic clans except the Viatichi and imposed upon them a heavy tax. He took possession of Kiev and made it the capital of his principality, naming it "Mother of Russian Cities. He also led an expedition against Byzantium with the results which favored Russian business enterprises in Greece. Oleg was followed by his son Igor in 912, who also several times attacked Byzantium but with no success. His main object was to quell uprisings of subjugated Slavonic clans and to repel attacks of the pillaging savages of the Ural Steppes, called Petchenegi. He met his death in 945 at the hands of Drevlian, a Slavonic clan, while visiting them for the purpose of collecting the yearly tribute. Upon Igor's death, his wife, Olga, an energetic and cunning woman, became ruler for the time of their son's minority. She avenged her husband's death by setting on fire the capital of the Drevlian, Kastrov, and then subjugating its people. The most noteworthy event of her time is her conversion to Christianity (957).

When her son Sviatoslav became ruler, he displayed all his cunning and ambition in the numerous expeditions for the purpose of conquest. He defeated the Turkish tribe Khazarui and subjugated the Viatichi, the only Slavonic tribe still under tribute to them. At the suggestion of the emperor of Byzantium Nikifor Fok, he turned his weapons against the Bulgars along the Danube, but with no consequences. Returning home he was killed near Kiev by the Petchenegs who in his absence had attacked the city (972). Sviatoslav had divided his dominion among his sons, but it was reunited by the youngest son Vladimir; he killed his oldest brother Yaropolk who had already assassinated another brother Oleg and subdued several revolting clans. He also made several successful attacks on the Poles, the Yatvags and the Bulgars along the Kama. The most significant event of Vladimir's rule was the conversion of the Russians to Christianity (988) after Vladimir's conquest of the Greek city Khersan. Until then they had been pagans and worshiped all natural phenomena which they represented by different idols. Vladimir, at first cruel, voluptuous and an assassin, is known to history as the "Beautiful Son of Kiev," due to a change said to have been worked in him by the Christian faith. Following the custom of the time

ness

Vladimir before his death in 1015 again divided the country among his sons, Garoslav, Yaropolk and Sviatopolk, but Garoslav reunited it at the time of the mutual fight of the brothers in which Yaropolk died and Sviatapolk fled. Garoslav I like his father divided in 1054 the Russian principality among his sons, the oldest receiving the principality of Kiev with the title of Grand Prince. This division of the country into a group of states was known as the system of Appanages. Each state had a ruling prince and subordinate or appanaged princes. The grand prince had authority over all of them and lived in the capital. He had a guard, called the druzhina, consisting of volunteer warriors who were his friends and counselors at all times and were well rewarded for their services. The drushiniks (members of the druzhina) of the highest rank called Boyare, acted by the appointment of the king as viceroys in cities, as judges, called tiunui, and collectors of tributes and fines. The king himself was chief justice. The main administrative was the Viechi, a popular assembly convened by the princes. Its head was the possadnik elected by the people, who next to the prince was the highest authority. The possadnik, just as well as the tiuiniu guarded social order and conducted trials. Self-government had reached its highest development in Novgorod which had become almost an independent state. Novgorod was also the commercial centre in the North, just as Vladimir in the South, both having busiconnections with the Hanseac Union formed of the German cities on the coast of the Baltic and the German Sea. While the system of the Appanages on the one hand favored the distribution of population and the development of commerce, on the other hand it led to internal wars of the appanaged princes. After Yaroslav the right of succession to the throne was transferred from the oldest son to the oldest in the family and Yaroslav's sons and grandsons ruled one after another. Their rule was greatly disturbed by internal wars of the appanged princes, complicated by the question of seniority in such a large family as that of Yaroslav. During these struggles Kiev was subject to attacks and pillage which finally caused its fall. In the second half of the 12th century it was replaced by another capital, Vladimir upon the Kliazma. At that time Russia began to suffer from the destructive invasions of the Palovtzui, a tribe kindred to the Pechenegs. For better protection against the external enemy, the cousins and nephews decided to make peace and by the treaty in Linbetz (1097) resolved that everybody inherit his own paternal estate. In spite of it the internal wars continued until Vladimir Monomakh, the son of Vsevolod and grandson of Yaroslav I, became ruler. He was the first to realize the ideal of a peaceful principality with the grand prince as the supreme power. He exercised his authority to stop the wars of the appanaged princes and, instead, have them join him in his expeditions against the savages to check their invasions.

The internal wars, however, had considerably weakened the country, and it could not resist the wild hordes of the savage Mongols and Tartars. Their invasion resulted in Russia's subjugation to Mongol oppression (1237) and the formation of a Tartar kingdom, the Zolo

8

taya Orda, along the lower Volga, with Sarai as its capital. In these days two prominent figures stand out. Aleksander Yaroslavitch Nevsky, prince of Novgorod, and Daniel Romanovitch Galitzki in the South. The first attained fame through his victory over Birger in the war against Sweden, and the second, by checking the invasions of the Lithuanians, who at that time had united with Poland and became a powerful principality to balance the power of the German orders on the Baltic Coast

The first attempt at freeing Russia from Mongolian oppression was made by Dimitri Danskoi (1363-89). He defeated the Tartars in the famous battle of Kulikov 8 Sept. 1380 and after renewed attacks under Ivan III they were driven from Russia and the Zolotaya Orda was destroyed. The Lithuanian conquest pressing in from the west, and the Tartar invasion from the south, greatly impeded the growth of the Moscovite empire into which the northwestern territories had begun to form, with Moscow, founded according to the chronicle by Yuri Dolgoruki (in 1147) on the Moscow River, as the dominating city and later, under Joann Kalita the capital and ecclesiastical centre. The first steps toward building the Moscovite empire was the annexation of the principality of Novgorod by Vasili I (1389–1425) and the abolition of self-government by the dissolution of the Vieche (1478) under Joann III (1462-1505), the son of Vasili II (1425–62) and the grandson of Vasili I. The two remaining territories, Pskov and Riasan, were annexed by the son and successor of Ivan III (1505-08).

The first prince to be crowned (1547) Tsar of Moscow was Ivan IV, son of Vasili III and Helen, the daughter of a Lithuanian magnate. This was a time of great oppression and revolt. The former friendly relations of grand princes and druzhina had long ceased. The peasants were in serfdom, having been tied by the Moscovite princes to the land which they cultivated. The members of the Boyarskaya Duma, the ruling power during Ivan's minority, contested for individual power at the expense of the people's freedom and the little Tsar's education. As a result he developed into a hardhearted and cruel man, hence his surname "Grozni" (Terrible). Oppressing the people, Ivan was suspicious of disloyalties and was liberal with punishments by death. His lack of success in the war against the Polish King Stefan Batore he ascribed to treason. His bodyguard were the "oprichniki» (a band of young noblemen) of whom he required a complete renunciation of their parents, and absolute submission to him. These sad days were brightened by the conquest of Siberia, an achievement of the Cossacks of the Don and their leader Ermak. The hard and exciting times of Ivan the Terrible were followed by the peaceful rule of his son Feodor (1584-98), a pious and mild prince who left the ruling to the Boyarskaya Duma, headed by Boris Gudunov, his wife's brother. As he was childless and his brother Dimitri dead, the line of Ruriks came to an end with his death. The people and the Zemskaya Duma (an assembly of merchants and landlords which convened only in important cases) elected the cunning Boris Gudunov to the throne despite the opposition of many boyars. With this Tsar begins the

period of incessant troubles in Russia. Boris, suspicious of the hatred of the boyars, spared no punishments and, as a crowning piece of misfortune, the country was stricken by famine and epidemics. At his death he left the throne to his son but Lzhedimitri (False Dimitri), pretending to be Feodor's dead brother, by the help of the Polish King Sigismund, who dreamed of spreading Catholicism in Russia, seized the throne and ruled 11 months, when he was assassinated by a conspiration headed by Vasili Shniski, who succeeded to the throne. During his rule another pretender, Lzhedimitri II, unsuccessfully besieged Moscow for two years. Here begins the period of interregnum and anarchy. The Moscovite Crown was threatened by the Polish King Sigismund and was saved only by the bravery of a meat merchant Kozma and Prince Pozharski; the former by his fiery patriotic speeches stirred the people of Novgorod, who, joined by other cities, elected Pozharski as their leader and forced the Poles to surrender. The Zemskaya Duma convened in 1613 and elected to the throne Michael Fedorovich of the dynasty Romanov. When the dynasty of Romanov came to the throne the Moskovite Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean to the mouth of the Don and Caspian Sea, and from the White Sea to the Ural Mountains and throughout Siberia. Its main cities were the capital, Moscow, fortified by the famous Kraul, and the two commercial cities Novgorod and Arkhangelsk engaged since Ivan III in negotiations with Holland, Germany and England. The territories in the immediate vicinity of Moscow were called the territories of the Grand Prince. They were inhabited by a mixture of Finns and Slavs. In the south lived the Cossacks, in the Don region, while Turkish and Mongolian tribes inhabited the steppes of Azov and the Black Sea. Southwestern Russia was occupied by the Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom, of which the main divisions were Little Russia, White Russia and Galicia. Though the Russians in these regions were the Greek Orthodox, the union of Liublin (1569) made them recognize the Pope as the ecclesiastical head. This aroused the discontent of the people and finally led to the uprisings of the Cossacks which resulted in the separation of Little Russia from Poland and its annexation to Russia under Alexei Mikhailovitch. Later (1667), however, the western region went back to Poland. With Michail (1613-45), anarchy came to an end and peace and order were re-established. The rule of his son and successor, Alexei (1645–76) is marked by a revolt of the people against oppression and heavy taxation as in the time of Ivan III. This pointed to the necessity of a new code of laws and the Sobornoye Polozheniye was composed. Ivan's oldest son, Feodor Alexsieyevich (1676-82), succeeded him and six years later was followed by Peter the Great, the youngest son of Aleksei Michailovich and Natalia Naruishkina, as his older brother Joann, son of Maria Miloslavskaya, was in illhealth. Owing to the ambition of their sister Sophia Miloslavskaya two parties formed and contested for the throne. The result was that both princes were crowned in 1682 and Sophia made regent till Peter's majority.

Peter the Great spent his childhood in the suburban Moscovite village surrounded by for