SCHUYLERVILLE.

Arthur Saint Clair, and later General Schuyler was tried by court-martial for alleged neglect of duty in permitting its capture. He was acquitted and completely vindicated. On 29 July 1777, he evacuated Fort Edward and retreated down the Mohawk Valley before Burgoyne. Notwithstanding the patriot success at Bennington (16 August), he was superseded by Gates (19 August), yet he remained with the army and to him belongs credit of effecting Burgoyne's surrender (19 October). He was again a delegate to the Continental Congress (1778-81) and his counsels were often sought by Washington. As president of the board of Indian commissioners he visited the tribes of the Six Nations and made treaties that secured their neutrality. He was a member of the New York senate (1780-84, 1786-90 and 1792-97) and actively promoted the building of a canal between the Hudson and Lake Erie. He was United States senator from New York (1789-91 and 1797-98). He resigned because of ill-health. He was married (17 Sept. 1755) to Catharine Van Rensselaer and had 11 children. His daughter Elizabeth became the wife of Alexander Hamilton. Consult Lossing, 'Life and Times of Philip Schuyler) (1860-62; 2d ed., 1872-73); Tuckerman, 'Life of General Philip Schuyler) (1904)

SCHUYLERVILLE, ski'lėr-vil, N. Y., vil lage, Saratoga County, on the Hudson River, and on the Fitchburg Railroad, about 10 miles east of Saratoga Springs, and 35 miles north of Albany. It was named in honor of Philip Schuyler (q.v.) who planned the campaign against Burgoyne. The village is in an agricultural region, and has a number of industries connected with farm and dairy products. It is a favorite summer resort; and many tourists visit the village on account of its historical associations. A tablet on one of the business blocks gives the information that near is the place where Burgoyne surrendered to Gates. A half mile up the slope from the main street stands the Saratoga Battle monument, erected by the Saratoga Battle Monument Association. The corner stone was laid on the 100th anniversary of the Burgoyne surrender, 17 Oct. 1877. It is ornamented on each side of its four fronts by niches, three of them containing bronze statues of Generals Schuyler, Gates and Morgan. The south niche, where would have been placed the statue of Benedict Arnold, stands empty. All roads from Schuylerville seem to lead to battlefields whereon were fought and won the independence of the republic.

SCHUYLKILL, skool'kil (from the Dutch, meaning "hidden channel”), a river in Pennsylvania, which has its rise in Schuylkill County, flows southeast and enters the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The total length is about 125 miles. In 1816-25 the river was made navigable for freight boats to Port Carbon, three miles above Pottsville (q.v.). Philadelphia obtains from the Schuylkill a large part of the city water supply. The river furnishes considerable water power which is used for manufacturing at Pottsville, Reading, Norristown and other places on its banks, and also at Philadelphia.

SCHUYLKILL HAVEN, Pa., borough in Schuylkill County, on the river of the same name, 25 miles northwest of Reading, on the

Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia and Reading and the Lehigh Valley railroads. It is situated in a coal mining region, and is an important coalshipping point, having a coal storage yard of a million tons' capacity. There are rolling mills, railroad car shops, pipe mills and manufactures of underwear, hosiery, shoes, soap, paper boxes and flour. Pop. (1920) 5,437.

SCHWAB, shwäb, Charles M., American financier: b. Williamsburg, Pa., 18 April 1862. He was educated at Saint Francis College, Loretta, Pa., entered the service of the Carnegie Company as a stake driver in the engineering corps of the Edgar Thompson Steel Works, and became chief engineer and assistant manager in 1881. He was superintendent of the Homestead Steel Works in 1887-89; president of the Carnegie Steel Company in 1897-1901; and president of the United Steel Corporation in 1901-03. He is chairman of the board of the Bethlehem Steel Company and of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, and director in many trust and manufacturing companies. He was appointed director-general of shipbuilding of the United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation, 28 April 1918, and earned high approbation for the energy and ability with which he handled its affairs.

SCHWAB, John Christopher, American political economist: b. New York, 1 April 1865; d. New Haven, Conn., 12 Jan. 1916. He was graduated from Yale in 1886 and later studied at the universities of Berlin and Göttingen. He was instructor, assistant professor and professor of political economy at Yale in 18901905, editor of the Yale Review from 1892 and librarian from 1905. He published History of New York Property Tax) (1890); The Confederate States of America' (1901), etc.

SCHWANN, shvån, Theodor, originator of the cell theory: b. Neuss, 7 Dec. 1810; d. Cologne, 14 Jan. 1882. He was educated in philosophy and medicine at Bonn, Wurzberg and Berlin. From 1834 to 1839 he was the assistant of Johannes Muller (q.v.). While occupying this position he discovered pepsin (q.v.), and published numerous important researches on artificial digestion, on the transmission of nerve-impulses, on the law of muscular contraction, on the walls of the capillaries, on decomposition and fermentation, on procreation, etc. In 1838 Schwann became professor of anatomy at Louvain, and in 1848 at Liège. In 1858 he was also appointed to the chair of physiology. His 'Mikroskopische untersuchungen uber die Ubereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachstum der Tiere und der Pflanzen (Berlin 1839) marks an epoch in biology. Here he points out that both animals and plants are made up of elementary units, the cells (q.v.). This book was translated into English in 1847 by Henry Smith under the title, 'Microscopical Researches into the Accordance of the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants.' Schwann also wrote the article 'Anatomie du corps humain in the 'Encyclopedia populaire' (Brussels 1855).

SCHWANTHALER, shvän'tä"ler, Ludwig von, German sculptor: b. Munich, 26 Aug. 1802; d. there, 28 Nov. 1848. He attended the Art Academy at Munich, and was a pupil of the battle painter Albrecht Adam; but in 1821

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took up his father's profession of sculpture and at once received a commission from King Maximilian to furnish a model for a silver épergne decorated with incidents from the fable of Prometheus. After a year's travel in Italy (1827) he executed the figures for the Ægina Gallery of the Glyptothek at Munich, and other decorative work for the same building. His (Shakespeare' in the vestibule of the theatre in his native city belongs to this period, as does the Bacchus frieze in the ballroom in the palace of Duke Max. On being appointed professor in the Art Academy at Munich he soon gathered a great number of pupils about him. He was meanwhile busy in numerous important works;

a

frieze illustrating the 'Voyage of the Argonauts'; a statue, Poetry of Hesiod'; the reliefs illustrative of Pindar; the statues of Eschylus, Sophocles and Aristophanes; the reliefs illustrating the myth of Aphrodite. Of his monumental work in marble and bronze, are the pediment groups in the Walhalla, consisting of 15 statues illustrating the 'Victory of Arminius over Varus'; and the two pediment groups for the Munich propylæum. The greatest, however, of his works of this class is the figure of Bavaria,' more than 20 feet in height, for the Hall of Fame in Munich. He also executed many statues of notable individuals. Among his ideal works are the life-size figures in sandstone of Venus'; 'Diana'; Vesta and Ceres'; 'Apollo'; 'Eros'; 'Bacchus'; and 'Pan. This series was completed in 1840 for the castle of Wiesbaden. His 'Dancing Girl,' a life-size figure in white marble is a work of remarkable beauty. His 'Shield of Hercules,' begun at Rome, is conceived in the pure classic spirit. It illustrates, after Hesiod, that divinity's exploits, etc., in 140 figures; has been cast in bronze, and replicas are to be found both in Germany and England. He was a sculptor of the Romantic school and his works did much to promote the cause of Romanticism, an art cause which lost much by his death. While several of his works exhibit great spontaneity, sometimes he overelaborates to such a degree as to impair the force of his original conception.

SCHWARTZ, shvärts, Christian Friedrich, German Protestant missionary: b. Sonnenburg, Prussia, 26 Oct. 1726; d. Tanjore, India, 13 Feb. 1798. He was educated at the University of Halle, 1746-49, ordained at Copenhagen and sailed from London for India 1750. He was stationed at Tranquebar, a Danish mission, until 1766, when, having transferred himself to the English Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, he removed to Trichinopoly and founded a church and a school. He removed to Tanjore, in 1778, and went as an ambassador to negotiate peace with Hyder Ali, at Seringapatam, in which he was successful after all others had failed. later war he succeeded in saving the city of Tanjore from famine by his influence with the peasants, whom he induced to send supplies. He gained the friendship of the rajah of Tanjore and of Hyder Ali, and the former, on his deathbed, entrusted his son and successor to the missionary's care. A monument designed by Flaxman and erected at Tanjore commemorates the young rajah's gratitude for his tutor, while another at Madras testifies to the general ap

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preciation of the services of Schwartz in India. Consult Pearson, 'Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of C. F. Schwartz) (1833).

SCHWARTZITE, a mercury-copper ore worked in Sumber district, Baker County, Ore.

SCHWARZ, Berthold, a Franciscan friar of Freiburg or Dordmund: d. Venice, 1384. His real name was Constantin Anklitzen: Berthold

was his monastic name, and the epithet Schwartz, "black," was added to it, because of his addiction to the study of chemistry, in the course of which he is supposed to have discovered an explosive, formed by the combination of saltpetre, sulphur and quicksilver; or of saltpetre, sulphur, lead and oil. Thus he is sometimes credited with the invention of gunpowder. This is said to have taken place in the Schwarz, early part of the 14th century. whether the inventor of gunpowder or not, was undoubtedly the inventor of artillery. In 1380 he came to Venice, and was commissioned by the government to cast some cannons, which are described as of an enormous size. The price agreed upon for his work not being forthcoming he became importunate, and was rewarded by being cast into prison, where he died. In 1853 a statue was erected to him in Freiburg. Consult Hansjakob, 'Der schwarze Berthold. der Erfinder des Schiesspulvers' (1891). See GUNPOWDER.

SCHWARZENBERG, shvärt'sĕn-berg, Adam of, Franconian count: b. 1587; d. Spandau, Prussia, 17 March 1641. He was descended from one of the oldest families of Franconia, was Prime Minister to George-Wilhelm, the Elector of Brandenburg, was all-powerful during the Thirty Years' War, and caused great calamities to the electorate of Brandenburg through his promoting an alliance with Austria against the Swedish Protestant League. When the "Great Elector" assumed the reins of government in 1640 he punished Schwarzenberg by divesting him of his power and imprisoning him in the fortress of Spandau, where he died.

SCHWARZENBERG, Karl Phillip of, Franconian prince and soldier b. Vienna, Austria, 15 April 1771; d. Leipzig, Germany, 15 Oct. 1820. He received a military training and served with distinction in the battles of Wagram, Hohenlinden and Ulm, and after the Peace of Vienna 1809, was Austrian Ambassador to Paris, where he is said to have arranged the marriage between Maria Louisa and Napoleon. At Napoleon's request he was created a field-marshal and, in 1813, placed at the head of the Austrian army of observation in Bohemia. When Austria joined Russia and Prussia, Prince Schwarzenberg commanded the allied forces, gained the battle of Leipzig and led the victorious armies into Paris 1813. Consult Prokesch-Oesten, 'Denkwürdigkeiten aus dem Leben des Feldmarshalls Fürsten Schwarzenberg) (1882).

SCHWATKA, shwät'ka, Frederick, American Arctic explorer: b. Galena, Ill., 29 Sept. 1849; d. Portland, Ore., 2 Nov. 1892. He was graduated at West Point in 1871, served as second lieutenant, United States army, until 1878, when he obtained leave of absence, and headed an expedition to King William's Land, in search of records and remains of Sir John Franklin's Arctic exploring party. He was successful and

SCHWEINFURTH

brought back in 1880 some valuable geographical information as well as the buried records, then having made a sledge journey of 3,251 miles, the longest on record. Schwatka next explored the Yukon River in Alaska, and returning in 1884, resigned his army commission, having meantime been promoted to first lieutenant. He led three other exploring expeditions: one to Mount Saint Elias, which he ascended for 7,200 feet, for the New York Times in 1886; one in 1891 to Alaska, opening up some 700 miles of new territory; one in 1889 to Chihuahua in Mexico, for the journal America. He was the recipient of the Roquette Arctic medal from the Paris Geographical Society, of a medal from the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia and of honors from geographical societies of Rome, Berlin and Geneva. He was the author of Along Alaska's Great River' (1885); Nimrod in the North (1885); The Children of the Cold' (1886). Consult Gilder's 'Schwatka's Search' (1881).

SCHWEINFURTH, shvin'foort, Georg August, German explorer and botanist: b. Riga, 29 Dec. 1836. He was educated at Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, specializing in botany, and in 1863-66 explored the valley of the Nile and the African Coast of the Red Sea; in 1869-71, aided by the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, he explored equatorial Africa in the countries of the Bongo, Madi, Dinka and other peoples, and discovered a tribe of pigmies and the river Welle. He founded the Egyptian Geographical Society 1872, and in 1880 became the director of all the Egyptian collections in Cairo. In other explorations he investigated the oasis of El-Chargeh; the botany of various districts of Egypt; the southern portion of Arabia, and Helouan and the Italian colony of Erythrea. His publications chiefly relate to travel and botany, and include Plantæ quædam Niloticæ (1862); Beitrag zur Flora Æthiopieus' (1867); 'Reliquiæ Kotschyaræ (1868); Im Herzen von Afrika (1874); Artes Africanæ (1875),

etc.

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SCHWEINITZ, shvi'nits, Edmund Alexander, de, American bishop of the Unity of the Brethren Church, son of L. D. Schweinitz (q.v.): b. Bethlehem, Pa., 20 March 1825; d. South Bethlehem, Pa., 18 Dec. 1887. He was graduated at the Moravian Theological Seminary at Bethlehem in 1844, and studied at Berlin in 1845. He held various pastorates in 1850-80, and in 1870 was consecrated bishop. His family for more than 100 years was continuously represented in the American branch of the Moravian ministry. He was president of the Theological Seminary at Bethlehem in 1867-84. In 1856 he founded the Moravian and edited it in 1856-66. Author of 'Moravian Manual' (1859); The Moravian Episcopate' (1865); Some of the Fathers of the Moravian Church' (1881); History of the Unitas Fratrum) (1885), etc.

SCHWEINITZ, Emil Alexander de, American bacteriologist: b. Salem, N. C., 18 Jan. 1866; d. Washington, D. C., 15 Feb. 1904. He was graduated from the University of North Carolina in 1882, subsequently studying at Göttingen and taking a medical degree at

Columbian University, Washington. He was dean and professor at the Columbian Medical School and director of the biochemic laboratory of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and made many original investigations in regard to bacteria, tuberculosis, disinfectants and hygienic problems. The results of these investigations appeared in numerous published scientific papers.

SCHWEINITZ, George Edmund de, American opthalmologist, son of Edmund A. de Schweinitz (q.v.): b. Philadelphia, Pa., 26 Oct. 1858. He was graduated at the Moravian College in 1876 and took his M.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1881. He was professor of opthalmology at the University of Pennsylvania from 1902; and was consulting opthalmologist at the Philadelphia Hospital and consultant at the Philadelphia Polyclinic. He was for many years first lieutenant in the United States army medical reserve corps and was promoted major in 1917. He was coeditor of the 'Opthalmic Year Book (1905-09), and author of 'Diseases of the Ear (8th ed., 1916); Toxic Amblyopias' (1896); Diseases of the Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat (1899), etc.

SCHWEINITZ, Louis David von, American Moravian clergyman and botanist: b. Bethlehem, Pa., 13 Feb. 1770; d. there, 8 Feb. 1834. He was educated in Germany, entered the Moravian ministry and in 1812 returned to America as the general agent of the Moravian Church in the United States. He afterward filled other important offices in the Church both at Salem, N. C., and at Bethlehem. He was an enthusiastic botanist and added 1,400 new specimens to the catalogue of American flora. He devoted himself particularly to the study of American fungi, which had hitherto received scant attention. At his death he possessed the largest private collection of plants in America, and this he willed to the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science. Author of 'Conspectus Fungorum Carolina) (1818); Synopsis Fungorum in America Boreali Media Degentium' (1832), etc.

SCHWEINITZ, Rudolf, German sculptor: b. Charlottenburg, 15 Jan. 1839; d. Berlin, 8 Jan. 1896. He was a pupil of the Berlin Academy and of Schievelbein, took a prominent part in the decoration of the National Gallery at Berlin and executed numerous commissions for monuments, public works and official buildings. Among his works were many busts, such as those of Crown Prince Frederick William (1872) and William I (1882) in marble. The memorial of William I and Frederick III at Fürstenwalde is also by him, as are also 20 decorative statues for the equestrian memorial of Frederick William III at Cologne.

SCHWENKFELD, shvĕnk'felt, Kaspar von, German mystic and religious leader: b. Ossig, Silesia, 1490; d. Ulm, 10 Dec. 1561. He studied at Cologne and other universities, in 1516 entered the service of the Duke of Liegnitz, and was made a councillor. A learned scholar, he differed from Luther on several points of theology, and was thus opposed by both Catholics and Protestants. His writings are of interest in the study of the times of the Reformation. Those who adhered to his views were subjected to greater or less persecution and in 1734 many emigrated to Pennsylvania,

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SCHWERIN, shya-ren, Germany, capital of the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, picturesquely situated on the west shore of the Lake of Schwerin, 20 miles south of the Baltic, and 130 miles northwest of Berlin. The lake is 14 miles long and 3 broad, and has smaller lakes behind it. The town is surrounded with handsome suburbs and contains the grand castle (1845-58), a Renaissance structure, erected by Wallenstein on a small island, one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in northern Germany, begun in 1248 and completed in the 15th century, with interesting monuments and stained glass; an arsenal; a museum and picture-gallery, and manufactures lacquered wares, machinery, cloth, tobacco, beer, etc. Pop. about 43,131.

SCHWIND, shvint, Moritz von, Austrian painter: b. Vienna, 21 Jan. 1804; d. Munich, 8 Feb. 1871. He was a pupil of the Vienna and Munich academies, and in 1832-34 decorated a room in the Königsbau with encaustic pictures; in 1834-35 he undertook one of his greatest works, the painting of 60 compositions in watercolor for Castle Hohenschwangau; became a professor in the Munich Academy in 1847; in 1854-55 painted the frescoes in Wartburg, and in 1864-67 those in the Vienna Opera House. He was a member of the Berlin, Vienna, Paris and other academies, and was knighted in 1855. He is considered one of the foremost of modern painters and the best representative of German romanticism. He worked as well in fresco, oils or water-colors, and his compositions number several hundreds.

SCHWYZ, shvits, Switzerland, capital of the canton of Schwyz, on the Gotthard Railroad, three miles northeast of the Lake of Lucerne. The interesting old town-hall contains the earliest trophies of the Swiss struggles for independence. There are also a handsome church and several higher educational institutions. The chief industries are cotton-spinning and the manufacture of bricks. Fruit and cattle-raising are extensively carried on in the neighborhood. Pop. about 9,000. Schwyz took such a conspicuous and leading part in the revolts against the house of Hapsburg_that its name was applied to the whole of the Swiss Confederacy.

SCIACCA, shäk'kä, Italy, a seaport town and bishop's see in Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 30 miles northwest of Girgenti on a sloping hill. It is badly built; its principal buildings are the cathedral (11th century), some ancient castles, several convents and a technical school and gymnasium. It is the Sicilian headquarters of Mediterranean coral fishing.

There are manufactures of bricks, pottery, barrels, baskets, olive oil and many persons are employed in fish-curing. Pop. about 27,000.

SCIENIDÆ, si-ĕn'i-dē, a family of percomorphous, spiny-rayed teleostomous fishes, somewhat resembling perches, in which the body is usually slightly compressed and elongated and covered with thin, slightly ctenoid scales. The head is scaly and its superficial bones are remarkable for the extensive development in them of passages for the mucous canals. The premaxillary bones are protractile and the chin is provided with pores and sometimes a barbel. Jaw teeth are well developed but, beyond the formation of enlarged canines, are not differentiated, but large molar teeth may pave the pharyngeal bones. The fins are well developed, the soft dorsal long, the caudal usually rounded or truncate and the anal short and preceded by one or two spines, never more. With few exceptions the air-bladder is large and of complicated structure; and it is by forcing air through this organ that the peculiar grunting and rumbling sounds produced by these fishes are caused. Most of the species are marine and littoral, but a few are fresh-water. Most of them feed upon other fishes but some upon crustaceans and mollusks. The family is an extensive one of 30 genera and about 150 species widely distributed and especially numerous in warm seas, and most of them are good food-fishes, two species, the Maigre and the Bearde dumbrina, being particular favorites for the table. Nearly all of the genera and more than 100 species are recorded as occurring in North American waters, including some food-fishes of first-rate importance and several game-fish. There may be mentioned as belonging here the weakfishes, drums, croakers, kingfish, spot and yellowtail.

SCIATICA, si-ǎt'i-ka, a painful neuritis of the sciatic nerve, which is the chief nerve of the back of the thigh and leg. It is characterized by extreme pain, often excruciating and occurring in paroxysms, and increased by any change of temperature and moisture; there is stiffness and generally swelling of the limb at the beginning of the disease, but after repeated attacks the limb seems to shrink, owing to the wasting of the muscles. In some cases the articulation of the hip seems affected, and permanent immobility of the limb takes place. Mild attacks are often called neuralgia of the sciatic. In all cases very careful examination of the pelvis and the bones of the lower part of the spinal column should be made, and all causes for chronic poisoning sought for. It is a very chronic condition. See NEURALGIA; NEURITIS.

SCIDMORE, skiď'mōr, Eliza Ruhamah, American traveler and author: b. Madison, Wis., 14 Oct. 1856. She became identified with the National Geographic Society at Washington, D. C., in 1890, and later its corresponding and foreign secretary. Her published works include Alaska: The Southern Coast and the Sitkan Archipelago) (1885); Jinrikisha Days in Japan' (1890); Guide to Alaska and the Northwest Coast (1890); Westward to the Far East'; 'From East to West'; Java: the Garden of the East' (1897); China, the LongLived Empire) (1900); Winter India' (1903); 'As The Hague Ordains' (1907), etc..

SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE

SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. See LANGUAGE, SCIENCE OF.

SCIENCES, Classification of. The effort to classify systematically the manifoldness of scientific achievements is a part of the methodology of science, and thus ultimately a part of logic. It has attracted the philosophical thinkers from the days of Plato to the present time. It came to the foreground of logical thought especially at those epochs in which new scientific movements started. It was thus mostly much more than a mere dividing and subdividing of the already existing sciences. It was essentially an endeavor to open new perspectives and to show the way to new possibilities of development. The new ordering and grouping of the parts of knowledge was thus always a symptom of great philosophical movements and an expression of deepest energies in productive ages. Only those periods whose scientific thought was lost in specialization without originality neglected the logical task of working out a survey of the whole field.

The principles of classification have changed frequently, and it would be almost artificial to seek a direct continuity in the successive efforts. Essentially psychological are those classifications with which both the classical philosophy and the modern philosophy answer the problem for the first time, inasmuch as both Plato and Bacon group human knowledge in relation to mental faculties. When the Platonists divided all knowledge into dialectics, physics and ethics, the three large parts corresponded to the activity of the reason, to the sensory perception and, thirdly, the desires and impulses. Bacon, also, comes to a three-fold division of human learning, corresponding again to three mental regions. It is memory, imagination and reason which are responsible for the subdivision of the "intellectual globe." The memory gives us history; imagination gives us poetry; and reason furnishes us with philosophy or the sciences. History is divided into Natural History, with its subdivisions of Normal, Abnormal and Artificial Phenomena; and Civil History, with its subdivisions of Political, Literary and Ecclesiastical History. Poetry is to be divided into Parabolic, Dramatic and Narrative. Philosophy, or the sciences, finally refer first to Man, secondly, to Nature, thirdly, to God. The Science of Man is subdivided into Civil Philosophy, with its departments of Intercourse, Business and Government; and on the other side, Philosophy of Humanity, which refers either to the Body, with Medicine, Athletics, etc., or to the Soul with Logic and Ethics. The Science of Nature is Speculative, and as such either Physics or Metaphysics; or it is Applied, and as such either Mechanics or Magic.

This classification of Bacon remained a classic model for more than a century. The French Encyclopædists still stood completely under his influence, and d'Alembert substituted only art in general for poetry, thus continuing the intellectualistic attitude, according to which poetry and art are defined as technical means of communication and expression and thus as parts of the system of knowledge. Yet the onesidedness of every psychological classification was always felt, especially because there is no knowledge which originates from one group of mental functions only. It thus seemed a natural antithesis to refer the sciences not

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to their mental origin but to the mental purposes which are to be fulfilled by them. It can be said that such a reference to purpose He controls the classification of Aristotle. combines the Dialectics and Physics of the Platonists into the one group of Sciences with theoretical purpose. A second group is then formed by the Sciences which refer to practical ends of action. And the third group, finally, are the Sciences related to creative activity. The Theoretical Sciences are divided into Analytic, Metaphysics and Physics; the Practical Sciences into Ethics and Politics; the Creative Sciences into Art and Technics. In a similar way, Locke, too, adjusts the divisions of knowledge to three groups of purposes. The first end of Knowledge is a theoretical understanding; the second purpose is the good and the useful; and the third is the development of Science in the interest of the understanding. He comes thus to the separation of Physics, Ethics and Logic, defining Logic as a nominalistic science.

The progress of natural science, with its important efforts of classification in descriptive botany and zoology suggested in the meantime more and more a classification of all knowledge with reference to the various groups of objects. Of course, in the subdivision such grouping with reference to the various things in the universe had always been acknowledged; but complete systems of classification of this type were now worked out from various sides. Both the physicist Ampère and sociologist Bentham, for instance, start thus from the difference of physical and mental phenomena, the one dividing all sciences into Cosmology and Noology, the other into Somatology and Pneumatology. Their further classifications elaborate a complex system in which partly theoretical, partly practical, principles are influential. Their fundamental division corresponds in a certain way to the two large classes with which in our present time the unphilosophical efforts of popular science are usually satisfied. Popular sciences prefer, indeed, to-day mostly to group all knowledge with reference to the material and, accordingly, to work with a classification which begins with a separation of physical and mental facts. The physical facts are then subdivided with reference to the different classes of objects and the mental facts of the individual and of society with regard to the different groups of mental interests.

Yet the classification. with reference to mental faculties, practical purposes or groups of material are not the only ones which have become influential in the development of thought. Even a naturalistic age could not overlook the fact that, after all, the different sciences do not really deal with different objects, but more often with different aspects of the same object. Man himself, for instance, can play a rôle in a large variety of sciences which do not belong together at all. These various aspects which interest the different sciences are, however, not simply co-ordinated; otherwise they would be unfit to constitute a systematic order. Comte recognized that they were dependent upon each other, and thus he created a system in which the fundamental sciences were conceived in one straight line of logical order. If each member of the series really demands the foregoing as its presupposition, it is a necessary