checking of progress against standards by cost accounting, the data for which was derived from the operating papers; and (6) of farreaching importance in its ultimate influence on the managerial attitude of mind, the substitution in place of the conventional "foremen's persuasion" in securing performance by workers, of voluntary application on the part of the latter through the incentive of a higher wage made possible by the increased productivity. During the years 1891-1900 these gradually developed devices became co-ordinated into a smoothlyworking system, in which those supervisors whose duties required personal contact with workers remained in the shop, while those whose duties were in the nature of planning, preparation and control through "papers" were brought together in an office called the "planning room, adjoining the shop.

Later History: the Principles. The interpretation of this system of management in terms of principles of management seems to have been inspired by Taylor's contacts in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which he joined in 1886. In that year, Henry K. Towne presented to the society the paper "The Engineer as an Economist" ((Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, VII, 425-32, 1886), significant because first directing attention to management as something other than the expression of executive ability, in the assertion that to ensure good management there must be joined to executive ability "a practical, knowledge of how to observe, record, analyze and compare essential facts in relation to wages, supplies, expense accounts, and all else that enters into or affects the economy of production and the cost of the product." During the 10 years following the presentation of that paper other papers, relating principally to a particular phase of the management problem-methods of wage payment, were presented and discussed in the Society. Taylor's "A Piece Rate System" ((Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers,' XVI, 856-903, 1895) is the most notable among these in that he therein described the general system of management which he had developed, arguing that it embodied managerial principles which must be the basis of any sound system of wage payment involving premiums or other differential reward. The title and emphasis of this paper centred attention on his differential piece-rate and not, to his disappointment, on the management principles implied. Therefore, in 1903 he again appeared before the society with the paper "Shop Management" ("Transactions American Society of Mechanical Engineers, XXIV, 1337), in which he attempted to direct attention from his piece-rate system to what he called a philosophy of management. The body of this philosophy, as presented by him, was essentially the following principles: (1) The objective of good management is the combination of high wages and low unit costs; (2) this objective can be achieved only by the application of strictly scientific methods of research and experiment to the study of the detail problems of management, and (3) the establishment thereby of laws or principles which may be expressed in standards of procedure which give control of operation; (4) the scientific selection of workmen, materials and processes and the establishment of work

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ing conditions to meet the requirements of the standards; (5) the scientific training of the workmen to improve the application of their skill in accordance with the standards; and (6) the establishment of such intimate and friendly co-operation between management and workers as to ensure a stability of the psychological environment of the shop which would make possible the application of all the principles above enumerated and the utilization of the mechanisms necessary to give them effect. It should be observed that a systematic and complete formulation of the principles of scientific management was not for Taylor or his generation.

Recent History: since the Eastern Rate Case. Again Taylor's audience in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers failed to appreciate the significance of his contribution. Interest of the members of that society and of the public in general was attracted, not by these serious, scientific papers and discussions, but by sensational testimony concerning the results of scientific management in the shops in which it had been developed, given at a hearing before the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1911, involving consideration of the efficiency of the railroads (Interstate Commerce Commission reports, XX, 243), and at an invvestigation in the same year by a special committee of the House of Representatives appointed to investigate, on a petition of organized labor, the effects of Taylor methods at Watertown Arsenal. It was at these hearings and in the title of a book which Taylor published at this time (Principles of Scientific Management,' 1911) that the term "scientific management" was first used. From that time on public interest in scientific management was intense and sustained, and discussion of it continuous and occasionally acrimonious, although not always discriminating. Interest and discussion was not confined to the United States, and foreign demand caused the translation of Taylor's papers into French, German, Italian, Japanese, Dutch, Russian and Lettish.

This sudden intensification of interest in scientific management may be accounted for by the fact that in 1911 the industrial community was prepared for such a body of logical and practical management principles manifested in a comprehensive system of management mechanisms. There had been for a decade a growing general interest in betterment of management. This general interest had yielded improved management devices such as cost accounting and "systems" of control through "forms" which made more precise but did not modify to any great extent existing practice. It had inspired an increasing volume of books and articles concerning special problems of management and descriptive of industrial organizations and procedures which represented the best in existing practice. It had led to books and articles of an exhortatory nature and of stimulating influence which gave a touch of idealism to the consideration of management problems (Harrington Emerson, 'Efficiency as a Basis for Operation and Wages,' 1909; Twelve Principles of Efficiency,' 1910). But it was not until the Eastern Rate Case of 1911 that interest became widespread and intense. The testimony concerning the accomplishments of scientific management in decreased unit costs and in

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creased profits combined with higher wages appealed to the primary motive of industrial activity; the completeness, and coherence of Taylor's system and of the principles which it expressed appealed to the intellect of the serious student of management problems; and the very term "scientific management" appealed to the imagination of everyone. The public mind and discussion at once seized upon the term and gave it a generalized application almost as broad as had been represented by the term "efficiency." For that reason students of management must exercise discrimination in distinguishing between the definite, historical meaning and the popular, generalized meaning of the term, and between real, partial and in some instances alleged cases of the application of the principles.

Results. The results of the development of scientific management in industrial plants have not been adequately summarized and presented. Management engineers have been conservative, as a matter of professional ethics, in disclosing results of work in the plants of their clients. Many investigations by others have been vitiated by one of two attending circumstances; either the investigator has been biased in a desire to find controversial evidence or by a preconceived philosophy of industrial relations; or he has failed to inform himself concerning the history and nature of scientific management, and has been led to investigate plants reputed to have, but really not having, scientific management. The most reliable and complete evidence of results is to be found in the records of the hearings before the Interstate Commerce Commission and of the special committee of the House of Representatives, referred to above, veritable mines of information, and the most satisfactory summaries in articles by C. Bertrand Thompson ("The Theory and Practice of Scientific Management," Ch. III) and Henry H. Farquhar (in Quarterly Journal of Economics, XXXIII, 466); in Brandeis' Scientific Management and Railroads (1917), a published part of a brief submitted to the Interstate Commerce Commission, and in the reports of the Chief of Ordnance, United States of America, 1911, 1912 and 1913. It is the concurring testimony of these several investigations that scientific management reduces unit costs and increases wages and profits, in many instances simultaneously with reduction in selling prices, and that industrial relations with the workers immediately concerned are improved.

Labor and Scientific Management.- An almost incomprehensible phase of the history of the scientific management movement is the existence, side by side, of improved industrial relations in those plants in which scientific management has been developed and strong opposition on the part of the management of the American Federation of Labor. The opposition of the management of organized labor seems to have been inspired by fear of the impairment of a fundamental element of their strategy (that their organization must be increased in membership and held intact, for the accomplishment of their larger objectives) by one of the least important mechanisms of scientific management, the differential wage system. Inspired by this fear, and taking advantage of certain opinions held by workers (such as the opinion that increased output will cause unem

ployment) and certain infelicities or speecn and illustration on the part of expounders of scientific management (such as the famous Schmidt case), and presenting statements concerning the actual operation of scientific management not based on critical investigation and not conforming to facts (that workmen are speeded up and worn out, that time-studies are secret, that rates are cut, etc.) the management of organized labor undertook a campaign of education of its membership which resulted in an almost solid opposition by the rank and file as well as the officers of organized labor to scientific management. In public discussion, to the opposition of organized labor was added the opposition of many social scientists who, without information derived from either experience or investigation, asserted that scientific management would make impossible the achievement of any ideal of industrial democracy. Throughout all this controversy the natural confusion of polemical discussion was worse confounded by absence of critical investigation of facts, inadequate information, and particularly by a failure to distinguish in the discussion of scientific management as a social problem, between management and administration. In this controversy the arguments against scientific management as a system of management technique were ineffective because not supported by the facts; on the other hand the arguments against scientific management with respect to its social implications were significant and of influence, but they were really arguments concerning administrative policy governing the use of management technique, and not more pertinent to scientific than to any other form of management. Superficial critics failed to perceive the point that the effective working of the scientific management mechanisms in particular depends so vitally upon sympathetic co-operation between planner, supervisor and operator, that antisocial administrative policy is inconsistent with its development and technical effectiveness.

Influence of the War.- The status of scientific management has been profoundly influenced by the war. Three influences are noteworthy (1) Although the prejudice of workers engendered by the sharp controversy preceding the war has not disappeared, open and active hostility of labor has been discontinued and apparently will not be resumed; (2) the demand for output during the war, supported by labor, compelled a wider extension of efficient production methods, in some instances of the methods of scientific management, not only in the United States but also in Europe, and both labor and management have learned by experience that scientific management technique is not inconsistent with wise, humane and cooperative administrative policies; (3) labor and management have observed that during and following the war managers of scientific management plants and scientific management engineers have been in the van of those inspiring and directing the establishment of the most humane and co-operative administrative policies, in accordance with the most farsighted principles of industrial relationship. War seems to have cleared away prejudice and misunderstanding and to have made possible an appreciation of the value of scientific management as an instrument for the increase of the productivity of human effort under wise administration.

Bibliography.- Babcock, Taylor Principles in Franklin Management' (New York 1918); Merrick, 'Time Studies as a Basis for Rate Setting (New York 1919); Parkhurst, 'Applied Methods of Scientific Management' (New York 1912); Taylor, 'The Principles of Scientific Management' (New York 1913); id., 'Shop Management' (New York 1911); id., The Art of Cutting Metal (New York 1906); Thompson, 'Scientific Management' (Cambridge, Mass., 1914); id., 'The Theory and Practice of Scientific Management' (Boston 1917); Bulletin of the Taylor Society (New York); Industrial Management (New York).

HARLOW S. PERSON, Managing Director Taylor Society, New York City.

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, organizations of scientists for the furthering of scientific study. They are largely devoted to the furthering of research work and the publishing of scientific journals, memoirs, etc.; and their conventions, which in the case of the larger societies are usually held in different large cities, promote discussion and intercourse among scientific students. The most important of the older scientific societies of foreign nations are the Royal Society of London (founded 1660), the Royal Institution of Great Britain (1799), the French Academy of Sciences (1666), the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Russian (1725), and the Royal Academy of Sciences of Germany (1700), of Sweden (1739) and of Denmark (1743).

The American national societies include the American Philosophical Society, founded 1743, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1848), and the National Academy of Sciences (1863). In addition there are local academies or scientific societies in many States and cities. These often have a museum and scientific library, and hold meetings for scientific discussion. The oldest of these is the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences at New Haven, founded in 1799; the Maryland Academy of Sciences dates from 1819; the California Academy of Sciences, in San Francisco, from 1853. So many have since been established that it is impossible here to catalogue them. In all of the States there are academies that hold winter meetings, with programs covering the different sciences. Among the prominent city institutions are the New York Academy of Sciences, founded 1817, the New York Scientific Alliance, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, the Boston Scientific Society, the Boston Society of Natural History and the Chicago Academy of Sciences. Other cities having scientific academies or societies are Salem, Worcester, Gloucester and Williamstown, Mass.; Portland and Augusta, Me.; Hanover and Keene, N. H.; Brattleboro, Vt.; Providence, R. I.; Hartford, Meriden, New Britain, Middletown and Bristol, Conn.; Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, Binghamton and Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; Reading and Media, Pa.; Wilmington, Del.; New Orleans, La.; Saint Augustine, Fla.; University, Ala.; Chapel Hill, N. C., Detroit, Mich., Saint Louis, Mo.; Brookville and Terre Haute, Ind.; Elgin, Peoria and Princeton, Ill.; Davenport and Muscatine, Iowa; Saint Paul, Minn., and Topeka, Kan.;

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Santiago and Santa Barbara, Cal., and Tacoma, Wash. In addition, there are various institutes that are really the home of many scientific_societies. See SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION; CarNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON; BROOKLYN EDUCATION, etc.

The work of these general societies has suffered from the specialization which the growth of modern science requires; the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the New York Academy of Science, and others of the larger organizations have met this requirement by a subdivision into sections for the different sciences. The specialization, however, has been favorable to the establishment of local and national societies devoted to single sciences and the various technical branches. All the leading sciences have national organizations in the United States; among such are the American Chemical Society (1876), the American Entomatical Society (1888), the American Society mological Society (1859), the American Matheof Naturalists (1883), the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America (1897), the Botanical Society of America, and the Geological Society of America (1888). The societies of technical science, while somewhat concerned with the professional interests of their members, are chiefly devoted to research. The oldest of these is the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852); others are the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (1884), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). For a complete list consult Handbook of Learned Societies,' published by the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D. C.

SCILLA, SQUILL, WILD HYACINTH, or BLUE BELL. See BLUEBELL,

SCILLY (sil'i) ISLANDS, England, a rocky granitic group at the entrance to the English Channel, forming part of Cornwall, about 30 miles from Land's End. They rise abruptly from the sea, form a compact group about 30 miles in circumference, and are about 140 in number; there are only six of any importance, the remainder being mere rocks and islets. The six are Saint Mary, Saint Agnes, Saint Martin, Tresco, Bryher and Sampson. Saint Mary, the largest, contains Hugh Town, the capital. Telegraph and telephone connections with the mainland and a periodical steamer service with Penzance facilitate communication. The climate is very mild and equable, and plants flourish out-of-doors that do not grow elsewhere in England. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in flower-growing, agriculture and fishing. Immense quantities of narcissus and similar flowers are sent to London in spring, and early potatoes and other vegetables are also grown. The grain crops include a small proportion of wheat. On several of the islands are to be seen prehistoric remains of rude pillars, circles of stones, kistvæns, rock basins and cromlechs. The islands are the unsubmerged portions of the traditional land of Lyonesse. The group is named from an almost inaccessible island about an acre in extent, probably from its position near dangerous rocks, similar to that of Scylla near Sicily. The islands were granted to some monks, who settled at Tresco, by Athelstane in 936. Subsequently Henry I granted them to

the Abbey of Tavistock, and Queen Elizabeth gave them to the Godolphin family. They are now the property of the Crown.

SCINTILLATION, the scientific term for what is familiarly called the twinkling of the stars. We all know that this cannot arise from any actual change in the light of the star itself; and it must have long been evident that it is due to the atmosphere through which we necessarily see the stars. But the exact way in which the atmosphere produces this effect is a question on which the views of experts have differed. Arago, in an essay on the subject, cites a dozen different explanations of the effect; and since his time many other writers have propounded explanations. But there is not so much divergence between these different theories as might appear at first sight, and physicists of the present day will probably agree upon the essential cause of the phenomenon. If the atmosphere were perfectly at rest, it is certain that there would be no twinkling, any more than there would be in looking at a star through a piece of glass. The stars scintillate because the atmosphere is continually in motion. Invisible waves produced by the ascent and descent of warm and cold currents of air are always present. We can see these waves at the side of a hot stove, or, in summer time, on the side of a brick wall heated by the sun, or on a road passing over the top of a hill when we are so situated that the sky-line is the road itself, and the latter is heated by the sun's rays. In consequence of these wave-like motions, a ray of light coming from a star is continually undergoing a slight refraction or bending of its course, which is changing every moment and is not the same even for two rays side by side. The result is that a ray of light which would reach the eye if it kept on its course is refracted away, while another ray reaches the eye which was not directed exactly toward it. But there may be no relation between these two rays; and thus sometimes for a moment less light will reach the eye, and at the next moment more. Thus we have the scintillation. The rays which actually come to the eye also reach it from slightly different directions. Thus the direction of the star also seems to change in twinkling, but this change is not noticeable except when we use a powerful telescope. Then, in an unsteady atmosphere, the stars seem to dance round and change their form in a manner which is very troublesome to the astronomical observer.

It is not the stars alone which twinkle. If we watch gas or electric lights of an evening several miles away we shall always see twinkling. As a general rule, the planets do not twinkle like the stars unless very near the horizon. This is because their visible disc has a certain surface, so that the rays of light which reach the eye from the planet do not pass through the air along a single fine line, but form a cone of which the breadth at any point is proportional to the distance of the point from the eye of the observer, and may be a foot or more in diameter at a distance of two or three miles.

If we view a bright star through a spyglass and give a slight motion to the latter so as to shake the image of the star round, we shall see that it is continually changing in color, going through most of the colors of the spectrum from

red to blue. This is probably caused by the different refractions of the rays of light of different colors, which are separated in the way we have described and then brought together again. The result may be partly due to the interference of light, an effect which cannot be treated in the present article.

The scintillation is always greater near the horizon, and least around the zenith. This is because the layers of the air are denser and more disturbed near the horizon, while the course of a ray of light through them is longer. SIMON NEWCOMB.

SCIO, si'ō or shi'ō. See CHIOS.

SCIOPPIUS, stsē-op'pē-oos, Kaspar, German scholar: b. Neumark in the Palatinate, 27 May 1576; d. Padua, Italy, 19 Nov. 1649. He received his education at Heidelberg and at Altdorf, and before the age of 21 had published several learned books, the most noted being his 'Verisimilium Libri Quatuor,) and Suspectæ Lectiones,' which attracted the attention of Pope Clement VIII. During a visit to Italy in 1589 he renounced Protestantism, and became a protégé of the Vatican. He is said to have written more than a hundred books, most of them under an assumed name, satirizing the leaders of the Protestant movement. The first person whom he attacked was the illustrious Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609), against whom he launched his 'Scaliger Hypobolimous (1607), in which he also assailed Henry IV. In 1608 he published more than 20 pamphlets against the Protestants, urging the Roman Catholic powers to exterminate them. Among his later books the most notable are 'Grammatica Philosophica (1628), and 'Paradoxa Literaria' (1628).

SCIOTO, si-ō'tō, a river in Ohio which rises in Auglaize County, flows southeast for a few miles, then northeast into Hardin County, then south by east to near the centre of Marion County, from where its general direction is south to the Ohio River, which it enters near Portsmouth. Other cities on its banks are Columbus, Circleville and Chillicothe. It is about 200 miles long, is navigable for about 130 miles and for 90 miles feeds the Ohio and Erie Canal. It flows through a fertile valley.

SCIOTO COMPANY, The, in American ́ history, a land-speculating organization formed in the Eastern States in 1787 for the purchase of territory along the Ohio and Scioto rivers. John Cleves Symmes, Joel Barlow and William Duer, of New York, were largely interested. The organizers at first bought lands of the Ohio Company and appointed Barlow their agent in Europe to make sales of them and to induce immigration. Barlow had been in England previously on similar business for the Ohio Company. Symmes parceled out the lands to other parties, the tract which now embraces the city of Cincinnati falling to the share of Matthias Denman, Robert Patterson and John Tilson, of New Jersey. As a result of Barlow's activities 218 emigrants sailed from Havre to settle on those lands, 19 Feb. 1790. About 50 of them settled at Marietta and the remainder formed the Gallipoli's settlement. The emigrants suffered from lack of promised supplies and inability to get clear titles to their lands, and

the company, failing to meet its obligations, was charged with swindling operations.

SCIPIO EMILIANUS AFRICANUS MINOR, sip'i-ō ē-mil-i-ā'nus of-ri-kā'nŭs mi'nor, Publius Cornelius, Roman soldier: b. about 185 B.C.; d. 129 B.C. He was an adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio, the son of Scipio Africanus Major. He began his public career in 151 when the Roman senate was about to dispatch a new army to repress the disturbances in Spain. Exasperated by the constant failure of the wars against the Spanish tribes, the people obstinately refused to serve. At this juncture Scipio came forward, and by a spirited and powerful harangue, made such an impression on the public mind that a multitude of Romans of all classes voluntarily enlisted. In 152 he accompanied the consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus to Spain as military tribune. In 149 B.C. the Third Punic War broke out, and Scipio followed the army to Africa. He served under the consul M. Manlius Nepos, and by his courage and vigilance rendered important services. Manlius recommended him in the most emphatic manner to the senate. Hence in 147, contrary to the usual custom, not being of the legal age, he was unanimously chosen consul and leader of the forces against the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians defended themselves with desperate courage, but although able to hold out until winter brought a temporary cessation of hostilities, on their resumption Carthage was reduced in 146.

By the express command of the Roman senate this rival of Rome, once so powerful, was demolished and burned. The sight of the ruined city affected Scipio to tears. He was honored with a magnificent triumph at Rome after the war was terminated, and was surnamed the "younger Africanus." After he had lived for some time as a private citizen he was sent with other ambassadors to Egypt, to King Ptolemy Euergetes, where he was much admired for his genuine Roman moderation, and his thirst for knowledge. When he returned (142) he was elected censor. In 134 he entered on his second consulship, in order to put an end to the war long carried on with Numantia. After a siege of eight months he forced a surrender.

For his conquest of this powerful city a triumph was decreed to Scipio, and he received the surname of "Numantinus." In the last years of his life he made himself many enemies among the people by opposing the measures of the popular party, and especially the agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus, of which Papirius Carbo and Gaius Gracchus, the tribunes of the people, were the great supporters. The circumstances of his death indicate that he was poisoned by his foes.

SCIPIO AFRICANUS MAJOR, sip'i-ō ǎf-ri-ka'nus mā'jor, Publius Cornelius, Roman soldier: b. 237(?) B.C.; d. 183 B.C. In 212 he was unanimously elected ædile, and in 210 became proconsul in Spain. His first successful enterprise of importance was the conquest of New Carthage, the stronghold of the Carthaginians in Spain. For the kindness and magnanimity he displayed on this and other occasions toward the native Spaniards he was rewarded by numbers of them attaching themselves to his standard. The next year (209) Scipio totally defeated Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, notwith

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standing the latter's advantageous position, but was unable to prevent him collecting more troops, and eventually crossing the Pyrenees to the assistance of Hannibal. In the meanwhile the Carthaginians collected a fresh army, which Scipio decisively defeated in 207. The result of this and subsequent engagements of minor importance was that the Carthaginians were wholly driven from Spain, and the greatest part of their country subjected to Rome. In 205 Scipio was elected consul. He now besought the senate to allow him to lead an army against Carthage herself, and was accordingly empowered to go to Sicily with an army and a fleet, in order, after mature deliberation on the means of effecting a landing on the coast of Africa, to execute the plan he had formed. In 204 he sailed from Lilybæum and landed in Africa, where he prosecuted hostilities with increased vigor, and such success as to oblige the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. The Carthaginian army, however, had been by this time so much reduced that that general was able to effect but little change, and after some fruitless negotiations for peace the great battle of Zama was fought 19 Oct. 202 B.C., resulting in the total defeat of the Carthaginians. The latter, on the advice of Hannibal, sought for peace, which was granted on hard conditions. On his return to Rome, Scipio was honored with a triumph, and received the surname of "Africanus." He was censor in 200 and consul in 194 (with Titus Sempronius Longus). In 189 he was accused of peculation and bribetaking. When his trial came on he contented himself, in answer to the accusations of his enemies, with reminding them of what he had done for the republic, and ended by saying that this was the anniversary of the defeat of Hannibal at Zama, and calling upon the people to neglect all disputes and lawsuits, and follow him to the Capitol, there to pray the gods that they would grant the Roman state other citizens like himself. This they did, leaving the accusers alone in the forum. Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and retired to his villa at Liternum, where he spent the few remaining years of his life.

SCIRE FACIAS, si'rē fā'shĭ-ăs, a judicial writ, directing the adverse party to show cause why the plaintiff is not entitled to execution or other benefit on a judicial record, as a judgment, or why a non-judicial record, as a patent, should not be declared invalid; also, the proceedings under such writ. The defendant may make the same defenses to this writ as to an action. It is often issued to revive a judgment. In the Federal courts of the United States a proceeding in the nature of a scire facias is used to annul letters patent for inventions. In England it is still used in garnishee proceedings in certain cases, in revenue suits involving corporations, and to enforce judgments against shareholders in certain companies, but it has been abolished there in proceedings to annul letters patent for inventions. It has been abolished in some code States in this country and a motion used in its place.

SCIRPUS, sèr'pus, bulrush, sedge, a large genus of rush-like or grass-like plants of the sedge family (Cyperacea) universally distributed. Many species are of partial or complete aquatic habit, annual or perennial, some small or some