in averting civil war. He prosecuted the Seminole and Creek campaigns in Florida (1836), and superintended the removal of the Cherokees from Georgia to their reservation west of the Mississippi. On 25 June 1841 he became major-general and general-in-chief of the army. In 1839 at the Whig Convention at Harrisburg, Pa., Scott was presented as a candidate for the Presidency, though he urged Clay as first, Harrison as second, choice and the 62 votes cast for him went ultimately to Harrison. He was ordered on 23 Nov. 1846 to Mexico to take charge of the forces there. He assembled his troops at Lobos Island, moved transports in February, landed at Vera Cruz 9 March and effected its surrender 29 March. From this time he proceeded on the uniformly victorious campaign which practically closed the war by his entry into the City of Mexico on 14 September. (For complete account see MEXICAN WAR and articles on various battles). At the close of the war Scott relinquished the command to Gen. W. O. Butler, and returned to the United States, where he received a gold medal from Congress, and was a candidate in 1848 in the Whig Convention which nominated Taylor for the Presidency. In 1852 he was defeated by Franklin Pierce, and in 1855 made brevet lieutenant-general. In 1859, when the American and British governments were adjusting the northwestern boundary question, he was sent to Puget Sound to adjust the difficulties caused by the precipitate occupation of San Juan Island. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he took command at Washington 12 Dec. 1860, provided for the safety of the national capital, and the organization of the army, but resigned the command to McClellan 1 Nov. 1861. Scott was a strict disciplinarian and this, with his formality, led to his army nickname of "Old Fuss and Feathers." As to his skill as a military leader there can be no question. He gained notable distinction in two wars. Webster, in a Senate speech (20 Feb. 1848), called the Mexican War "the most brilliant campaign on recent military record," and Grant writes of the faultless strategy at Churubusco. His political defeats in no way detracted from his reputation. He published General Regulations for the Army) (1825) and 'Infantry Tactics' (1835). Consult biographies by Mansfield (1846); Headley (1852); Victor (1861) and Wright (1894); Scott's Memoirs (1864); Townsend, Anecdotes of the Civil War' (1884); Wilcox, 'History of the Mexican War' (1892) and Barnes, J., Giant of Three Wars' (New York 1903).

SCOTT: Lockhart's Life of. The 'Life of Scott' by John Gibson Lockhart is the biography usually mentioned as a serious rival of Boswell's 'Life of Johnson.' The works have many points in common. Each has for subject one of the greatest men in English literature; each was written by a man intimately acquainted and thoroughly in sympathy with the subject; each is constructed upon a large plan, with canvas filled even to the smallest details. Furthermore, Lockhart followed the autobiographical plan of Boswell. Beyond these resemblances, however, there are striking dissimilarities. So far as command over language is concerned, Lockhart was probably superior to Boswell; but as a biographical artist he was

clearly inferior. He did not possess Boswell's dramatic skill, nor his ability to report a conversation, nor his discrimination in selecting the most important material.

The Life of Scott' is probably the longest biography of established rank in the English language. Carlyle, who reviewed it before the publication of the seventh and last volume, deplored what seemed to him the excessive length of the narrative. "Study to think it nothing miraculous," he wrote, "that seven biographical volumes are given where one had been better Scott's biography, if uncomposed, lies printed and indestructible here, in the elementary state and can at any time be composed, if necessary, by whosoever has a call to that." Carlyle's opinion has in the main been justified. In 1911 Sir Sidney Lee expressed his conviction that "Lockhart's merit is mainly due to the excellence and the abundance of the raw material provided for him in Scott's ample journals and correspondence." In short, the 'Life of Scott' is a Gothic cathedral, overawing us by its size and magnificence, rather than a Greek temple, gaining our admiration by its artistry and simplicity.

With all of its limitations, however, the biography is great. The combination of subject and biographer is sufficient to guarantee its greatness, and, to a certain extent, its finality. Lockhart, personally acquainted with Scott since May 1818, became his son-in-law on 29 April 1820, when he married Sophia Scott. The biography was completed in 1838, six years after Scott's death. Lockhart had access to all documents; his work, therefore, together with the journals of Scott later published in full, must always remain the great mine of information from which later biographers must dig. In writing the life of his father-in-law Lockhart had set "the truth and the fear of God" before his eyes; his work, consequently, is not a panegyric; but, like Boswell's Life of Johnson,' a straightforward account of faults as well as of virtues. Professor Hugh Walker, in The Literature of the Victorian Era' (pp. 920-923), highly commends Lockhart upon the skill and insight with which he interprets certain manifestations of Scott's character, particularly his love of display and his consequent lavish expenditure. The style of the biography is admirable; several passages, notably the description of Scott's death, are among the best in English literature. All in all, the work, by its very length and exhaustiveness, forms a noble monument to the memory of a man who did all things on a large and magnificent scale.

WALDO H. DUNN.

SCOTTDALE, skot'dal, Pa., borough in Westmoreland County, on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania railroads, about 30 miles in direct line southeast of Pittsburgh and 16 miles south of Greensburg, the county-seat. It is in an agricultural and coal mining region, and it has considerable manufacturing interests. The chief manufacturing establishments are large pipe-works, rolling mill, foundry, machine shops and steel works. The coal mines of the vicinity contribute to the prosperity of the borough. The two banks have a combined capital of $100,000. The principal buildings are the churches and schools. The educational in

stitutions are a high school, public and parish elementary schools, a private school and a public library. Pop. 5,678.

SCOTTISH CHIEFS, The, a_romance by Jane Porter, published in 1810. It was still popular, and historically correct in all important points. The narrative opens with the year 1296.

SCOTTISH CLANS, Order of (American), an organization with 4,000 members, having its headquarters in Boston, Mass. It is a fraternal and benevolent order, having in 1903 a total income of $85,214. In the same year it paid out claims to the amount of $67,000.

SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE. The Gaelic spoken in the Highlands and islands of Scotland forms one of the subdivisions of the Gaelic language, the other two being Irish and Manx. (See CELTIC LANGUAGES; GAELIC LITERATURE). It was introduced into the southern part of Argyll by the Dalriads, who emigrated from Ireland in the 6th century, and there established the subkingdom of Dalriada. The language spread until it became paramount, and it was used at court as late as the reign of Malcolm Canmore. Gaelic, which was the language of the district of Buchan in Aberdeenshire, in the 12th century, and was spoken in Galloway in Queen Mary's reign, gradually retired north and west beyond the Highland line, until now its strongholds are Arran and the Hebrides, the counties of Argyll and Inverness, Ross and Sutherland, and parts of Perth and Caithness. A strong Gaelic-speaking colony was founded in Carolina in the 18th century. In 1772 the first Gaelic-speaking immigrants landed in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, and in the first quarter of the 19th century_some 25,000 landed in that part of Canada. Prince Edward Island, Glengarry in Ontario and other parts also received settlers who spoke the Gaelic tongue and have maintained it to the present time. One of the objects of Lord Selkirk in founding the Red River Settlement was the formation of a Gaelic-speaking colony, which, through difference in language, would be proof against any tendency to amalgamate with the Americans. Within the past half century there has been a marked revival of interest in the Gaelic literature of the Highlands, one of the proofs of which was the founding of a Gaelic chair in Edinburgh University in 1882.

For nearly 300 years Scotland and Ireland had a common literary tradition, and the tales of the great Irish legendary heroes were current in the Scottish Highlands. Adamnan's life of Saint Columba, written in the island of Iona before 713 A.D., is the first literary product of Gaelic Scotland that survives. The 'Book of Deer' is of the 9th century; the Book of the Dean of Lismore,' by Sir James MacGregor and his brother Duncan, is a manuscript collection of date 1512-26. John Knox's Liturgy was the first book to be printed in the Gaelic dialect (1567). Long after the invention of printing the output was small in this language; only some 20 books had been printed in Gaelic up to the time of the Rebellion of 1745. A valuable collection of manuscripts is deposited in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. language has been peculiarly rich in poets, a succession of notable bards appearing for about 300 years. Among them may be cited Mary

The

Macleod (b. 1659); John Macdonald, a member of the Keppoch family; Alexander Macdonald, an officer in Prince Charles's army; Robert Mackay (Rob Donn, 1714-78); Ban McIntyre (1724-1812); Ewen McLachlan of Aberdeen (1755-1822), and William Livingston of Islay (1808-70). Consult Stuart's edition of the Book of Deer' (1862); Book of Lismore' (edited by MacLauchlan, 1862, and by Cameron, 1892); Blackie, 'Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands'; Henderson, Norse Influence on Celtic Scotland' (1910); Sinclair, 'Gaelic Bards from 1411 to 1517) (1890); Carmichael, Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations, with Illustrative Notes orally collected in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, and translated into English' (2 vols., 1900); McAlpine, Pronouncing Gaelic Dictionary, with a Grammar) (12th ed., 1903); McLeod, 'Dictionary of the Gaelic Language) (1909); Mac Bain, 'Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language' (1911); Maclean, Typographia Scoto-Gadelica; or, Books printed in the Gaelic of Scotland from 1567-1914, with Bibliographical and Biographical Notes' (1915).

SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY, School of, the school of philosophy founded by Thomas Reid, whose aim was to disprove the skeptical conclusions of Hume, which had obtained a wide vogue in Great Britain and on the Continent. Reid, who was born in Kincardineshire, Scotland, 26 April 1710, and died in 1796, insisted upon certain principles as everywhere present in experience, and he appealed to human consciousness and intelligence against what he called "the ideal theory." The resemblance of Reid's philosophy to Kant's vindication of the categories as elements necessary to the constitution of the simplest experience is obvious. Reid and his successors cannot be said to have produced a system, but they started many others in a train of thought that led to valuable philosophical observations, and the Scottish School of Philosophy proved no insignificant breakwater to the tide of skepticism which rose so high in the 18th century. Besides Reid, the most noted representatives of the Scottish philosophy were Dugald Stewart (1753-1828); Sir William Hamilton (17881856); W. Whewell, master of Trinity College, Cambridge (1794-1866); Henry Calderwood (1830-97). James McCosh (president of Princeton University from 1868 to 1888) and Noah Porter (president of Yale University from 1871 to 1886) belonged to the same school, and as teachers of philosophy contributed largely to its influence in this country. Consult McCosh, 'The Scottish Philosophy.'

SCOTUS, skō'tus, John Duns, Franciscan friar, one of the great lights of the mediæval scholastic philosophy and theology. The years 1265 and 1275 are variously assigned for his birth; he died at Cologne, 8 Nov. 1308. His cognomen Scotus plainly betokens his Gaelic origin. The chief advocate on behalf of Ireland is Luke Wadding, who contends that Scotus cannot have been an Englishman, since his epitaph runs, "Scotia me genuit, Anglia suscepit; not a Scotchman, since Bonaventure, in a list of the Franciscan provinces, mentions that of "Scotia, or Ireland"; on behalf of North Britain, Thomas Dempster (1579-1625), "one of the most learned men whom Scotland has pro

448

duced," wrote a quarto volume designed to prove Duns Scotus a Scotchman; and on behalf of England the celebrated antiquary John Leland (1506-52), adduced_considerable proofs of Scotus' English origin. Duns Scotus entered the order of Franciscan friars early in life, studied at Merton College, Oxford, and became a Fellow of the same. He went to Paris in 1304, to Cologne in 1308, where he died suddenly the same year and was buried in the Franciscan Church. His works consist of commentaries on the logical works of Aristotle and the 'Isagoge' of Porphy, a commentary on Aristotle's 'De Anima,' two commentaries on Aristotle's 'Metaphysics,' besides a shorter work Conclusiones ex XII Libris Metaphys. Aristotelis'; Grammatica Speculativa); "Tractatus de Rerum Principio'; 'De Primo Principio'; Theoremata; Quæstiones Miscellaneæ; Quæstiones Quodlibetales,' and the unfinished Tractatus de Cognitione Dei.' All these except the 'Quodlibetica' were written at Oxford. There, too, he wrote his Opus Oxoniense, which contains his whole philosophical and theological teaching in collected form. Soon after his death decrees were passed requiring the Scotist doctrine to be taught in all the Franciscan schools. His works were collected by the Irish Franciscan Wadding in 12 folio volumes (Lyons 1639). The doctrine and teaching of Scotus, one of the two great schools of scholastic philosophy and theology, found its home in the Franciscan order to which its founder had belonged, just as the Thomist school found its home among the Dominicans of which Thomas of Aquin, its founder, was a member. Scotus was an earnest and most ingenious champion of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception against the opposite teaching of the rival order of Dominicans. His place as theologian and philosopher was and is of the highest. See SCHOLASTICISM.

SCOTUS ERIGENA, ě-rij'ě-na, Johannes, Christian philosopher of the Carlovingian period. Everything concerning the place or date of his birth is conjectural. It has been divined from his name that he was of Scottish race and Irish birthplace. He was probably born between 810 and 815. He is said by some apocryphal authorities to have traveled in Greece, Asia, Egypt, Italy and France. But his first actual appearance in history is in the court of Charles the Bald, who was himself devoted to letters. He was induced by this monarch to translate the treatise On the Heavenly Hierarchy,' the work of the pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite. The attention of Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, was attracted by the fame of Erigena who wrote at that prelate's request his work on 'Predestination." Heavenly Hierarchy' was a work which had a great deal of influence in development of mysticism (q.v.) in France. Pope Nicholas I in 867 complained to Charles the Bald that such works as this version of the Neo-Platonist's work were of doubtful tendency; it is not known what reply he received, but after that date Erigena drops out of the light of history. Johannes Scotus Erigena translated all the works of the supposed Areopagite; he also composed a treatise on the Eucharist in which he denied the real presence. His philosophical views were set forth in his 'Divisions of Na

"The

ture which caused him to be charged with pantheism; and modern historians of philosophy have looked upon him as the precursor of Spinoza. It is certain that 400 years later (1225) Pope Honorius III, during the Albigensian crusades, condemned the book and ordered it to be burned publicly. Consult Hjört, Johann Scotus Erigena' (1823); Guizot, 'Histoire de la civilisation en France'; Milman, 'History of the Latin Church.'

SCOURGE OF GOD, The. See ATTILA.
SCOURING-RUSH. See DUTCH RUSH;

RUSH.

SCOVEL, Sylvester, American journalist and engineer: b. Denny Station, Pa., 29 July 1869; d. Havana, Cuba, 11 Feb. 1905. He was educated at the University of Michigan, and in 1895 went to Cuba as war correspondent. He broke through the Spanish police and military lines 30 times, was twice captured, once making his escape, and on the second occasion, in 1897, was released at the request of the United States government. He was subsequently correspondent in the Turco-Greek War, in Spain, and in the Klondike, and returned to Havana just before the destruction of the Maine in 1898. He was with the army and navy until the surrender of Santiago, and after that was engaged in the promotion of various Cuban enterprises. In 1899-1902 he was consulting engineer for the United States military government Cuban customs service.

SCRANTON, George Whitefield, American manufacturer: b. Madison, Conn., 11 May 1811; d. Scranton, Pa., 24 March 1861. With his brother, Joseph H. Scranton, he engaged in the manufacture of iron at Oxford, N. J., in 1839, and in 1840 they established_smelters at Slocum, now named in their honor, Scranton, Pa., using anthracite coal in their furnaces. Later Scranton became interested in railroad transportation, and he was president of the Lackawanna and Western and of the Cayuga and Susquehanna railroads. He served in Congress in 1859-61.

SCRANTON, Miss., town and county-seat of Jackson County, on the Pascagoula River, near the Gulf of Mexico, and on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, about 48 miles southwest of Mobile, Ala. It is in a lumbering region, and the town is known also for its extensive fisheries, especially the oyster industry. The chief industries are connected with the manufacturing and shipping of pine lumber, and, in the season with the canning and shipping of, oysters. Pop. about 2,500.

SCRANTON, Pa., city and county-seat of Lackawanna County, is the third in population in the State. It is 167 miles from Philadelphia, northerly, and 134 from New York, westerly; and a central point on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad. It is also entered by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, branches of the Delaware and Hudson, the Erie and the New York, Ontario and Western railroads. The Lackawanna and Wyoming Valley Railroad (Laurel Line), of new and costly construction and operated by electricity, is another connecting link south and eastward. Built on both sides of the Lackawanna River, which merges into the Susquehanna River some eight miles to the southward, the city is pleasantly