SENAC

curred, resulting in the formation of one body under the leadership of Sen and assuming the name of "Brahmo-Somaj of India." After a visit to England in 1870 he put into effect, and with beneficent results, some philanthropic schemes based on the principles of those he had seen there. In 1878 dissensions arose among his followers owing to his frequent displays of ill temper and to his leaning toward mysticism, and the congregation split. The last few years of his life were full of controversy, disappointment and sorrow. He wrote Yoga, Objective and Subjective' (1884). Consult Müller, Max, 'Biographical Essays' (1884).

SENAC, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French physician: b. in the diocese of Lombec, Gascony, about 1693; d. 1770. He was graduated in physics at Rheims and later at Paris and in 1752 was appointed physician to Louis XV. He was a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris and of the Royal Society of Nancy. His greatest work and to which he owes his anatomical reputation was 'Traite de la Structure du Cœur, de son Action, et de ses Maladies' (2 vols., Paris 1749). He also published an edition of 'Heister's Anatomy) (Paris 1724); 'Discours sur la Méthode de Franco, et sur celle de M. Rau touchant l'Operation de la Taille (1727); Traite des Causes, des Accidens, et de la Cure de la Peste' (1744), and 'Lettres sur la Choix des Saignées' (1730), written under the pseudonym of Julien Morison.

SÉNACOUR, Etienne Pivert de, French philosophic writer: b. Paris, November 1770; d. Saint Cloud, February 1846. He was of a melancholy and seclusive nature even as a boy, and read eagerly everything obtainable, especially such books as related to travel. For four years he studied philosophy at the Collége de la Marche and was then sent to the Seminary of Saint Sulpice by his father's orders, but escaped from there and went to Lake Geneva. In 1798 he returned to Paris and devoted himself to literature, though the main source of his meagre income was a pension obtained from Louis Philippe through the good offices of M. Villenain. His chief works are 'Rêveries sur la Nature primitive de l'homme' (Reveries of the Primitive Nature of Man) (1799); 'Obermann' (1804); 'Libres Méditations d'un Solitarie Inconnu' (Free Meditations of a Recluse) (1819). Of these Obermann, a collection of letters from Switzerland treating on nature and the human soul, is by far the best known, and while a doubt bordering on atheism is expressed in its lines, yet the work is entirely original and contains many beautiful passages showing a delicate and charming feeling for

nature.

SENATE, United States. The Constitution of the United States provides that "all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, and each Senator shall have one vote." It was further provided that the senators chosen at the first election should be divided into three classes, the seats of senators of the first class to become vacant at the end of two years; of senators of the second class at the end of four

years and senators of the third class at the end of six years, thus providing that one-third should be chosen every second year, and it is further provided that, "if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies."

Regarding the qualifications of senators the Constitution provides that "no person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen."

The Vice-President of the United States is president of the Senate, but has no vote unless the Senate is equally divided. The Senate is authorized to choose other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate has the sole power to try impeachments, and when sitting for that purpose its members must be under oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States presides, and the concurrence of twothirds of the members present is requisite to convict. Judgment in cases of impeachment cannot extend further than to removal from office and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of trust or profit under the United States. The legislatures of the respective States are empowered to fix the time, place and manner of electing senators, but Congress may make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The members of the Senate, like those of the House of Representatives, are in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, privileged from arrest during their attendance on the sessions of the Senate and in going to and returning from the same, and they are exempt from being held responsible elsewhere for anything said in debate in the Senate. No person holding any other office under the United States can be a senator, and no senator can be appointed to office, the emoluments of which have been increased during his term of service in the Senate. These restrictions apply also to members of the House of Representatives. The Senate may propose or concur in amendments to revenue bills, but cannot originate them, that power resting in the House.

The Senate received its existing form as a recognition of the equality of the several States and had not this concession to State's rights been granted by the convention which framed the Constitution the minor States would probably not have accepted that_instrument.

The proceedings of the Senate were held in secret until the session of 1793, when discussions as to Albert Gallatin's right to a seat therein were held with open doors. This publicity had been urged from the beginning by those who argued that secret debates diminished the responsibility of the Senate and of its individual members to the people, and that publicity would inspire popular confidence in the Senate and its course. A resolution was passed that after the termination of the session then being held and as soon as suitable galleries

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should be provided, the galleries, except on special occasions requiring secrecy, should remain open while the Senate was engaged in legislative business. Executive business is still disposed of in secret session.

The question of electing United States senators by direct vote of the people, instead of by the legislatures of the several States, has been agitated for many years. For this purpose an amendment to the National Constitution is necessary. In 1903 the legislatures of the several States passed resolutions asking Congress to call a convention for the purpose of considering an amendment to the Constitution providing for such election of United States senators. Resolutions to the same effect were presented in other legislatures, and finally in 1913 the matter culminated in the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution which specifies "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures."

Next to President of the United States, and hardly excepting the Vice-Presidency, the office of senator is more sought than any other under the national or State governments. In the earlier period of the government, when the States still regarded themselves as almost independent sovereignties, the governorship of a State was looked up to as an office but little short of the Presidency. In the more recent years of the republic governors have often been eager aspirants for the senatorial office, and very willing to give up their places as chief magistrates of their respective States to sit in the so-called Upper House at Washington. Many of America's great statesmen have been members of the Senate, and no body of modern legislators has more august traditions or associations. Some of the States make it a rule to re-elect the same senators practically for life, and this is especially the case with the New England States and in certain Southern States. Senators are extremely jealous of their liberty of debate, and their prerogatives. The salary of senators is $7,500 per annum. The present full membership of the Senate is 96, but several seats are usually vacant through disputed elections or for other reasons.

SENATORIAL COURTESY, a custom in the United States Senate by which the procedure of that body is based on personal honor rather than on a code of rules. For instance, the Senate along this line of courtesy_will not confirm a Presidential appointee in a State whose senators object to the person nominated. SENATORIAL DISTRICT. See Dis

TRICT.

SENDAI, sen-di', Japan, capital of the province Ken Mijagi, on the island Hondo, near the eastern coast, 190 miles northeast of Tokio. It is celebrated for its silk and lacquer manufactures, and carries on a considerable trade in fish and salt. It is on the railway running north from the capital.

SENEBIER, Jean, Swiss natural philosopher and historian: b. Geneva, 1742; d. 1809. After studying theology he was ordained a minister about 1762 and for several years

preached at Chancy. Philosophy and natural history, however, held more charm for him than divinity and in 1773 he left the ministry to become keeper of the public library at Geneva. In 1787 he also became one of the conductors of the Journal of Geneva. His most important works are 'Essai sur l'Art d'observer et de faire des Experiences' (2 vols., 1775); 'Mémoires Physico Chimiques sur l'Influence de la Lumière Solaire sur les Trois Règnes de la Nature'; 'Rapports de l'Air avec les Etres organisés'; 'Histoire Littèraire de Genève (3 vols., 1808); besides which he also published 'Catalogue des Manuscripts dans la Bibliothèque de la Ville de Genève.'

SENECA, Lucius Annæus, Roman philosopher, son of the rhetorician of the same name: b. Corduba (Cordova), Spain, about 4 B.C.; died in Rome by his own hand at the order of Nero, 65 A.D. As his family was wealthy and of equestrian rank, the boy was brought to Rome to be educated for the bar and an official career. He attended also with enthusiasm the lectures of several noted Pythagorean, Stoic and Cynic philosophers. He had gained great fame for eloquence and had entered the Senate through the quæstorship, when, in 41, at the instance of Messalina, who accused him of an intrigue with Julia Livilla, sister of the late Emperor Caligula, he was banished to Corsica. From there he sent to his mother, Helvia, the charming 'Consolatio,' but exhibited little fortitude in his exile. Finally, in 49, Agrippina, who, after the execution of Messalina, had married Claudius, and had prevailed upon him to make her son Nero the heir to the throne, secured Seneca's recall that he might act as tutor to the young prince, then 11 years of age. At Nero's accession in 54, he wrote the curious political satire (still extant) on the death of Claudius, commonly known as Apocolocyntosis, "Pumpkinification," a word formed upon the analogy of apotheosis "deification." During the first years of the new reign, Seneca, in conjunction with Burrus, prefect of the Prætorian guard, was, on the whole, successful in keeping Nero within the bounds of humanity. Agrippina, ambitious and cruel, was determined to rule the state through her son, and Seneca seems to have palliated the latter's excesses in order to destroy his mother's influence over him. Finally, when Poppæa Sabina, with whom Nero had become infatuated, induced him to order the assassination of his mother, Seneca wrote for the emperor a letter to the Senate, asserting that Agrippina had conspired against his life, and had committed suicide upon being discovered. The death of Burrus in 62 made Seneca's position quite insecure. Nero fell into the hands of men like the infamous Tigellinus; money was needed to meet his extravagant expenditures and Seneca had become enormously wealthy. Foreseeing his probable ruin, he offered to resign to Nero all that he had, and, upon receiving a declination, couched in terms of specious affection, retired into the country and lived with utmost simplicity. In 65 he was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso and was ordered to commit suicide. With his wife, Paulina, who insisted on dying with him (see the affecting account in Tacitus, 'Annals, XV, 60-64), he opened the veins of his arms. Paulina's life was barely saved by her slaves; Seneca, after suffering prolonged

agony, during which he displayed the utmost serenity, was finally suffocated in a vapor bath. "Nothing in life became him like the leaving it." He was undoubtedly an earnest seeker after truth and right. The Roman world was much his debtor for the wise and humane administration of the state during the "golden quinquennium of Nero; but he lacked real strength of character, and in his connection with Nero too often acquiesced in the doing of positive evil that a greater good might be accomplished. As a man of letters, he is incomparably the most brilliant figure of his time. He was an extremely prolific writer, his subjects are exceedingly varied, the ideas usually nobly conceived and eloquently expressed. In striking contrast to the periodic style of Cicero, he loves short, epigrammatic sentences. He is an expert in the use of every variety of rhetorical ornamentation, which, in harmony with the prevailing taste, he carries to excess. Though by no means a profound thinker, he is broadminded and sympathetic in his presentation of the ethical principles, Stoic in the main, by which man's daily life should be guided. He was, indeed, by certain Fathers of the Church believed to have been a Christian, and there are still extant 14 letters, undoubtedly spurious, of a correspondence with Saint Paul. His moral essays embrace 12 so-called dialogues, 'On Peace of Mind,' 'On Anger,' On the Shortness of Life, etc.; 3 books On Clemency,' addressed to Nero; 7 On Benefits,' and 20 books of Letters to Lucilius.' With these may be grouped the seven books of 'Naturales Quæstiones,' which handle physics as a basis for ethical reflections. We possess also nine tragedies, composed rather to be read aloud than to be acted, and so rhetorical in substance that, though fine passages are not lacking, they are rather declamations than real poetry. They had, however, a great influence upon the drama of the 16th century.

Bibliography. The best text of the prose works is by F. Haase in the Teubner series (1893-95); of the tragedies, by F. Leo (Berlin 1878-79.) The Apocolocyntosis' has been edited by A. P. Ball (New York 1902). Consult also Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire (cc. 50, 52-24); Zeller's 'Eclectics› (London 1883); Farrar's 'Seekers after God' (London 1886).

NELSON G. MCCREA,

Professor of Latin, Columbia University. SENECA INDIANS, Mohegan "Sinnekens," "place of the stones," a tribe belonging to the Iroquois family. Their own name is Tsonondowanenaka, or Tsonondo waka, "people of the great hill or mountain," probably referring to the lofty eminence south of Canandaigua Lake. The term Seneca is a Mohawk rendering of this latter name, which has passed through Dutch to English hands. A member of the famous League of the Iroquois, founded about the year 1570. With the Mohawks and the Onondagas, the Senecas constituted the elder phratry of tribes in the social and political organization of the confederation, while the junior phratry was composed of the Oneidas and the Cayugas. The earliest known council fire of the Seneca people was established south of Lake Canandaigua, while their territory comprised the region environing Seneca and Canan

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daigua lakes and extended westward to Genesee River. As a member of the League, the Senecas were called Honěñninhohonte, signifying, "They are fixed to a door or door-flap," denotive of the fact that the Seneca people were the political doorkeepers of the League, not because, as commonly asserted they stood at the western frontier of the territory of the confederation, but because being at first averse to joining the League, they were finally persuaded to do so by having the honor of the office of doorkeeper and of official executioner bestowed upon them. Their last two League chiefs or rulers were charged with the duty of ascertaining the good or evil designs of any alien who might seek to enter the jurisdiction of the confederation. In the American Revolution the Senecas espoused the cause of Great Britain against the colonies. Today the Senecas are represented by several different bodies of people dwelling in diverse places and under various forms of government. About 553 are on the Tonawanda reservation, 1,262 on the Cattaraugus reservation, 1,006 on the Allegany reservation, 10 on the Tuscarora reservation, and 6 on the Onondaga reservation, all in New York State; 87 are on the Cornplanter reservation in Pennsylvania, and 219 on the Grand River reservation in Ontario, Canada; total, 3,143. In addition there are 337 so-called "Senecas" in the Indian Territory, but these are not included with the foregoing, as it is doubtful whether they were ever true Senecas. The earliest estimate of the numbers of the Senecas, in 1660 and 1677, give them about 5,000. In 1825 those in New York were reported at 2,325. Morgan, 25 years later, estimated them at 2,712 with over 200 more on the Grand River reservation in Canada. About the same estimation was given in 1909. Skaniadariio, or Handsome Lake, the founder of the reformed pagan Iroquoian religion in vogue to-day among the various northern Iroquoian peoples, was Seneca. On the migration, or probably expulsion, of the Awenrehronon from the headwaters of Genesee River, New York, in 1639, and on the later defeat of the Neutral Nation, about 164950, and of the Eries about 1654-57, the Senecas moved some of their settlements and colonies westward toward Lake Erie and along the Allegheny River. In 1657 there were 11 different alien tribes or peoples represented among the Senecas, thus indicating how well they exercised the right of adoption to replace their great losses in the almost interminable wars of the League, which had then lasted about 75 years. Of the several tribes formerly constituting the League of the Iroquois, the Senecas are the most progressive in the arts and knowledge of civilization. With incidental exceptions, the history of the Senecas previous to the American Revolution is virtually that of the League. See IROQUOIS.

a

Bibliography.- Butterfield, C. W., 'History of Seneca County) (Sandusky 1848); Conover, G. S., 'Seneca Villages' (Geneva, N. Y., 1889); Doty, L. L., 'History of Livingston County, New York' (Geneseo 1876); Dutton and Wentworth, 'Memorials of Seneca Indians' (Boston 1840); Gernier, J., 'Des missions de la Conception, etc.' (Quebec 1858); Harris, G. H., 'The Indian Bread Root of the Senecas (New York 1890); Hawley, C., Early Chapters of Seneca History' (Auburn, N. Y., 1884); Mar

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shall, O. H., The Niagara Frontier) (Buffalo 1885); Merrihew and Thompson, Seneca Indians in the State of New York' (Baltimore 1840); Phillips, J., 'Indians and Friends in Pennsylvania in 1791) (London 1792); Turner, O., 'History of the Pioneer Settlements, etc.' (Rochester 1852); Wooddy, W., Revolution in the Government of the Senecas in 1848' (Baltimore 1875).

SENECA LAKE, a lake west of the central part of New York State, about 25 miles south of Lake Ontario (q.v.), into which it discharges its waters by the Seneca and Oswego rivers. It is about 37 miles long, from north to south; and from one to four miles wide. Its depth is about 630 feet and it is 445 feet above sea-level. It is one of the group called the "Finger Lakes.»

SENECA RIVER, a river of New York; flows east from the north end of Seneca Lake to the north end of Lake Cayuga, then turns north and is joined on the left by the outlet of Lake Canandaigua, then turns east, and receives in succession the drainage of the other parallel "finger lakes," Owasco, Skaneateles and Onondaga, then turns northwest, taking the name of Oswego River (q.v.) and enters Lake Ontario at Oswego. Length, including the Oswego, nearly 100 miles.

SENECA, or SENEGA, ROOT. See POLYGALA.

SENECA FALLS, N. Y., village in Seneca County, on the Seneca River and Barge Canal, near Cayuga Lake, and on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, about 160 miles west by north of Albany, and 37 miles west by south of Syracuse. Electric lines connect the village with Cayuga Lake Park, three miles distant, and with Waterloo and other villages. A fall of 50 feet in the river affords extensive water power for manufacturing, and explains the name of the place. Seneca Falls is in an agricultural and fruit-growing region. The chief industrial establishments are machine shops, woolen factories, fire-engine and pump works, grist mill and furniture factory. The shipments are chiefly farm products, fruit, dairy products, pumps and fire-engines. There are three banks; the national bank has a capital of $100,000. The educational institutions are a high school, the Mynderese Academy, public and parish elementary schools, private business schools and a public library. The government is vested in a village president and a board of trustees. Benevolent institutions include a hospital and the Johnson Home for Indigent Females. Seneca Falls was founded in 1791 and received its charter of incorporation in 1831. Pop. about 7,000.

SENECIO, se-ne'si-o, one of the largest known genera of plants, comprising about 1,000 species; it belongs to the family Asteraceae, and is universally distributed. It is, therefore, practically impossible to give a compact description of the generic characters; but it may be said that these plants are annual or perennial herbs, shrubs, or even arborescent, have basal or alternate leaves, and solitary, corymbose or paniculate heads of flowers, usually yellow in hue. These are made up of both radiate and tubular flowers, the latter being five-toothed and perfect, or of the tubular ones alone, on a

flattened or slightly convex receptacle. The involucre surrounding each flower head is cylindric or campanulate, with its principal bracts in one series, distinct or slightly united at the base, and encircled very often with a ring of shorter scales. The achenes are mostly terete or compressed, sometimes curiously papillose. After wetting, these papilla put forth pairs of spiral hairs which secrete adhesive mucilage. The generic name has been derived from the Latin senex, an old man, in reference to the tuft of soft bristles surmounting the achene, and mostly white. These parachutes have so well distributed the seeds of the common groundsel (S. vulgaris), originally European, that it is found all about the civilized temperate zone as a troublesome weed. It is a more or less glabrate annual, about a foot high, with spatulate pinnatified leaves and rayless yellowish heads in corymbs. It blooms at all seasons, and is often sold in English cities as food for cagebirds. At one time it was even regarded as a love charm, and was said to have formed a part of the Virgin's bed. It was also of old repute for poulticing. S. aureus is a charming, slender, American species, with cordate basal leaves, called golden ragwort, and blooming in the spring. Squaw-weeds are other species of Senecio.

com

The plants known as Cinerarias, having dark-blue rays,-a rare color among posites, are greatly cultivated and hybridized, but not many other senecios are valued in horticulture. Among these are the familiar German ivy (S. mikanioides), an easily propagated, rapidly growing, glabrous, twining vine, with small yellow flowers in axillary or terminal clusters, and glossy, deltoid-ovate leaves; and the Cape ivy (S. macroglossus), a beautiful greenhouse climber with golden flowers as large as marguerites and ivy-like leaves. One of the "dusty millers" is S. cineraria, a tall perennial, enveloped in white wool, and with small compact corymbs of rayless flowers. The handsome S. pulcher, with reddish-purple rayed flowers, of strong growth and cobwebby foliage; the great S. japonicus, over five feet high, and extremely ornamental, with its large palmate leaves, and large yellow flowers; and S. petasites, valuable for its large panicles of big, yellow fragrant flowers, blooming in midwinter, are also cultivated.

SENEFELDER, zā′ně-fěl-děr, Aloys, Bohemian inventor of lithography: b. Prague, 6 Nov. 1771; d. Munich, Bavaria, 26 Feb. 1834. The son of an actor, in early life he tried unsuccessfully to be both actor and dramatist. Having learned something of printing he conceived the idea of inventing a process of his own, and was finally led by accident to his great discovery of lithography (q.v.). Subsequently he made important improvements, contrived a press, procured a patent and set up an establishment; which he carried on successfully. In 1809 he was appointed inspector of the royal lithographing establishment. He published the 'Elements of Lithography) (1819), a curiously illustrated work, which he translated into English and French. Consult Nagler, 'Alòys Senefelder und der Geistliche Rath Simon Schmidt' (1832); Pfeilschmidt, E., 'Aloys Senefelder' (Dresden 1877); Muller, J.

W., 'Invention of Lithography) (New York 1911).

SENEFELDER, Leopold, Austrian physician: b. Vienna, 25 Sept. 1864. He was educated at the Preparatory Seminary of Mariaschein, the Mies Gymnasium, Bohemia, and the University of Vienna. In 1888-89 he served as interne at the Garnisons-Spitale No. 1, Vienna, was physician to the reserves and assistant physician at Rudolf Hospital, Vienna, in 1889-91. He established a practice at Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria, in 1892 and at Vienna from 1893 to 1905. After 1908 he was lecturer on the history of medicine at the University of Vienna. In 1902 Dr. Senefelder accompanied Cardinal Gruscha to the Jubilee Celebration at Rome. He is librarian and archivist of the Vienna College of Physicians and has published Anathema esto? (1892); Die Katakomben bei St. Stephen (1902); Die kaiserliche königliche Weiberstrafenstalt in WienerNeudorf (1903); Dispensatorium pro pharmacopoeis Viennensibus in Austria (1907); 'Acta Facultatis medicæ universitatis Vindobonensis (Vols., IV, V, VI, 1908-11). He collaborated in Geschichte der Stadt Wien' (1904) and contributed to various periodicals.

SENEGAL, sen-ě-gâl', West Africa, (1) a river which flows into the Atlantic near Saint Louis, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, in lat. 15° 48′ N. It is formed by the union of the Hafing and the Bakhoi, at Bafulabé, the former rising in the Futa-Jallon Mountains, southwest of Timbo, and the latter near Wosebugu. From the opposite or western side of the mountain in which the Bafing rises springs also the Falemé, another great branch of the Senegal, which runs north in a more direct course until it joins the united head streams above Bakel. The Senegal is about 1,000 miles long, and is navigable up to the cataracts of Félou in Kassan, about 700 miles from its mouth. A river service from Saint Louis to Kayes, 460 miles, is maintained during the flood season, and a railway line has been built from Kayes to Bafulabé (82 miles), and is being extended to Bamaku and Tulimandis on the Niger. The delta is marked by numerous marigots or channels which disperse its waters through the adjacent plains; and its mouth is dangerously barred, so as to be accessible only for small vessels in the dry season. Dredging operations are in progress to facilitate navigation. (2) A French colonial possession comprised in the government-general of French West Africa, named after the river and comprising the coastal strip from the British colony of Cambia north to Cape Blanco and extending inland to the French military territories of Niger and Mauretania. By a decree issued in 1899 the colony of Senegal was extended so as to include the western part of the former French Sudan territory. The area of Senegal is now about 74,012 square miles. The whole is under a lieutenant-governor, who has direct jurisdiction in the communes of Saint Louis, the capital, on the coast, Dakar, the chief port, near Cape Verde, Goree and Rufisque. Several other districts are under administrators. The colony is represented in the French Chamber by one deputy. Dakar is fortified, and there is a military force of about 3,000 men, nearly

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one-half of them natives. The budget of the directly administered territory in 1916 amounted to $1,280,909, and the local budget, $413,916. All towns having a sufficiently numerous European or assimilated native population have urban schools, giving the same instruction as the French primary schools, modified to suit local requirements. At Dakar there is a superior technical school. At Saint Louis are a normal school for the training of native teachers, of interpreters, kaids (native judges) and chiefs' sons. There is a Mussulman superior school at Saint Louis with 20 pupils, and there is a large hospital for natives at Dakar. Millet, maize and rice are cultivated by the natives; the natural products include gums, castor-beans, earth-nuts, cocoanuts, rubber and kola. A salt industry is being developed. Cattle, sheep, goats and camels are domesticated, and some weaving, pottery-making and other industries are carried on. In 1913 the imports were valued at over $16,000,000, and the exports, consisting chiefly of earthnuts, gums and rubber, at over $14,000,000, the trade being chiefly with France, although steamers ply also to Liverpool and Hamburg. In 1916 751 miles of railway line were open, the chief line being the coast line between Dakar, Rufisque and Saint Louis. In the same year there were also 1,494 miles of telegraph and 100 miles of telephone line in operation. A submarine cable connects Dakar with Brest. There is a river service on the Senegal from Saint Louis to Kayes (490 miles). Dakar has regular communication with French ports by the steamers of four French lines, and also with Liverpool and Hamburg. The French first settled Senegal in 1637. It was taken by the English in 1756, retaken by the French in 1779 and subsequently held by the English until the peace of 1814. The settlements did not flourish until the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor in 1854. He began a vigorous line of action, subdued the Berber chiefs who prevented the French advance inland and annexed their territories. This policy was pursued in the same spirit by subsequent governors; districts were annexed and protectorates proclaimed with extraordinary rapidity, though the two powerful chiefs Ahmadou and Samory occasioned a great deal of trouble, 1887-90. Pop. 1,282,566. Consult Lasnet et al., Une mission au Sénégal, ethnographique, botanique' (Paris 1900).

SENEGAL-NIGER, Upper, French colony forming part of the government-general of French West Africa. It is bounded on the north by the Algerian sphere; on the west by the Felémé River and the frontier of French Guinea; on the south by the frontiers of the Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Togoland and Dahomey, and now includes Fada-N'Gourma and Say, and on the east by the military colony of the Niger. It, therefore, includes the valley of the Upper Senegal, more than two-thirds of the course of the Niger, the whole of the countries enclosed in the great Bend and a large part of the Sahara to the Algerian sphere of influence. The area is about 568,273 square miles with a population in 1914 of about 5,778,296 natives and 1,269 Europeans. The colony was formed in 1904 from the territories of Sene