SHIP-SAILING. See NAVIGATION.

SHIPIBO, she-pe'bō, South American Indian tribe of Panoan stock, living in the forested regions of the upper Ucayali River, Peru. Their existence was reported by Franciscan missionaries who visited them in 1651, but a mission established for them in 1764 was, after a brief period of success, massacred in 1767, and the Shipibos have since rarely come in contact with the whites. They are great wanderers with no fixed places of migration, and are skilled boatmen and fishermen.

SHIPKA PASS, Balkan Peninsula, extends between Bulgaria and the territory formerly known as Eastern Rumelia, since 1885 incorporated with Bulgaria, at a height of 4,600 feet above sea-level, and is 87 miles distant from Rustchuk and 50 miles northeast of Philippopolis. In the hot fight between the Russians and Turks, 1877, the Russians held the position and Suleiman Pasha lost 20,000 men in his attempt to take Fort Nicholas, on the summit of the pass, 21-26 Aug. and 9-17 Sept. 1877.

SHIPLEY, England, a town of Yorkshire (West Riding), lies three miles north-northwest of Bradford, on the river Aire. The large parish church of Saint Paul is a fine modern Gothic specimen. The principal industry is the manufacture of woolens and cloths, and the quarrying of stone. Pop. 27,700.

SHIPPEN, William, American surgeon: b. Philadelphia, Pa. 16 Oct. 1736; d. Germantown, Pa., 11 July 1808. He was graduated at Princeton in 1754, took his M.D. at the University of Edinburgh in 1761 and engaged in practice at Philadelphia in 1762. He began the first series of lectures on anatomy given in America, at Philadelphia, in 1762, and in 1765 became professor of anatomy and surgery at the newly-established medical school at the College of Philadelphia; from 1780 until he retired in 1806 he was professor of anatomy, surgery and obstetrics at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1777-81 he was directorgeneral of the military hospitals of the United States.

SHIPPENSBURG, Pa., borough in Cumberland County, 38 miles southwest of Harrisburg, on the Cumberland Valley, the Western Maryland and the Philadelphia and Reading railroads. The borough was settled in 1750. The Cumberland Valley State Normal School is located here. Industries include railroad machine shops and manufactures of clothing, hosiery and furniture. Pop. (1920) 4,372.

SHIPPIGAN, ship-i-gän', Canada, a seaport town of Gloucester County, New Brunswick at the southeastern entrance to Chaleur Bay, opposite Shippigan Island, 70 miles cast of Bathurst. It is a terminus of the Intercolonial Railway system, and has steam-ferry communication with Saint George's Bay, Newfoundland. It has a fine harbor, a maritime trade and valuable fisheries. Beyond Shippigan Island, Miscou Island is frequented by sportsmen for plover, the best in Canada.

SHIPPING, Law of. See MARITIME LAW. SHIPPING ARTICLES. See SEAMAN. SHIPPING AND SHIPBUILDING TERMS. The more common terms used in shipbuilding have been gathered here for the

729

convenience of the student who wishes to read the articles on ship and shipbuilding.

ABAFT.- Behind, at the rear; as, abaft the beam, that is somewhat within a semi-circle to the rear of a vessel's beam. See BEAM in this article.

AFT.- At, near or toward the stern of a vessel. AFTER PERPENDICULAR.— A vertical straight line directly aft of the rudder post.

ANCHOR. A heavy steel or iron instrument, attached by a chain or hawser at the bow of a vessel, for dropping to It the bottom and holding a ship that is not tied to a dock. usually has a ring or shackle in the head, a longitudinal shank, and a cross arm ending in flukes. See SEA-ANCHOR in this article.

ATHWARTSHIP.- Across the ship, at right angles to the

keel.

BALLAST. Any weight or weights, as sea water, coal, pig iron, etc., placed in the lower part of a vessel to help keep her upright. A vessel without cargo usually requires ballast to prevent her being top-heavy.

BARK. A two-masted vessel square rigged on the foremast and sloop-rigged aft.

BEAM. An athwartship member supporting a portion of a deck; also an imaginary line at right angles to the keel; also the width of a ship; also a straight steel framing member as an I-beam.

BELOW. To make a rope fast by turning it around a

cleat.

BELOW. Any part of a ship below a deck; the equivalent of the landsman's down stairs."

BERTH.-A bunk or bed as for a sailor; also a place for a ship to lie.

BILGE. The slightly rounded or flattish portion of a snip's hull, between the side and the bottom; the bulge or degree of curvature from the flat, used with reference to either the inside or outside of the hull.

BILGE KEEL.- One of a pair of miniature keels placed on the bilge of a hull. In a steel ship it is a fore and aft plate riveted to the shell. It serves to resist rolling, making the ship steadier in a rough sea.

BITTS.- Formerly, a pair of posts, now a heavy steel casting with uprights fitted to the weather deck of a vessel for attaching the mooring lines or hawsers, as towing-bitts, mooring bitts.

BLOCK. A casing or shell having holes through which ropes are passed to change the angle of direction; especially the form called in full, a pulley-block, having one or more grooved wheels or pulleys within the casing or block. A hook

or ring is usually added for attachment, and the device is the most common form of making a turn in hoisting ropes or securing increased leverage by means of different sizes of pulleys or sheaves. Compare DEADEYE in this article.

BOBSTAY. A stay holding the bowsprit down to the

stem.

BOOM.-A long, round, heavy spar, pivoted at the lower end, as for hoisting cargo, or holding the foot of a fore and aft sail. Boss. An enlargement or curved swelling portion of a ship's hull at the point where a propeller shaft passes through. Bow. The forward part of a ship, also called the bows. BRIDGE. A platform placed athwartship above the weather deck, for the accommodation of the officers who navigate a ship.

BRIG. A two-masted vessel, square-rigged.

BULKHEAD. One of various vertical partitions in a ship's hull, either fore and aft or athwartships.

BULWARK. The raised side of a ship above the weather deck, topped by a rail.

BUNKER. A compartment low down in the hull for carrying coal or other fuel. In warships the bunkers are usually positioned so as to cover and protect the machinery or magazines.

BUOYANCY.- Ability to float; also the resulting upward pressure of water on a floating body.

CALKING. Making tight a seam between planks, as by filling with oakum, hence tightening up any joint so as to be water-tight.

CAMBER. A slight upward bend, especially in a timber lying athwartship; the curvature measured athwartship of deck, also called round up."

CANT. Something set at a slope or angle, as the cant frames sloping ribs where a vessel's body narrows toward the bow or stern.

CAPSTAN.- An upright windlass adapted to heaving in lines.

CARLINE.- Any short fore-and-aft timber for connecting beams, or the like, as a mast carline, abutting against a mast. CAULKING. Closing a seam in a vessel with oakum and a chisel.

CENTREBOARD.-A vertical board or plate pivoted to swing in a well extending through a boat's bottom, as a form of drop-keel.

CENTRE LINE. The fore and aft middle line.of a vessel from stem to stern.

CHINSING. A rough form of caulking.

Сноск. Originally, a block as one back of the poops, to

730

keep the cradle in position; now usually a heavy fitting or casting through which ropes or hawsers may be led.

CLEAT. A heavy iron fitting attached to the deck, having a fore and aft arm around which a rope may be wound.

CLEW. The lower corner of a square sail, or the aft lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail. Also a metal fastening or eye worked into the corner, for tying a rope.

COAMING. The vertical edge of a hatchway or skylight; a low curb to keep out the water.

COFFER DAM. The space between two bulkheads when placed close together; also a temporary enclosed dam. CRADLE. A heavy framework for supporting a vessel, as in dry dock.

CROSSTREES. Beams placed athwartships at the head of a mast.

CUTWATER. A sharp-edged projection set in front of a vessel's stem where it cuts the water-line.

DAVITS.- Heavy vertical pillars with the upper ends bent to a curve, between which a boat is supported and swung on deck. The boat is loaded on the deck, and then the davits are turned so that the boat hangs overboard, when it may be lowered to the water.

DEADEYE. A block with holes through which ropes are run after the manner of a pulley block, but without sheave or pulley.

DEADLIGHT.A shutter for a cabin window or porthole. DECK. The floor of one of the levels of a vessel; also the space between such levels. The upper deck is the weather deck. Other decks are called berth-deck, half-deck, hurricane-deck, main deck, mess deck, orlop deck (just below the berth-deck), poop-deck, spar-deck, turtle-deck (an upper deck curved like a turtle's back), and wing-deck (one hanging over a paddle-box).

DISPLACEMENT.- The total weight of the water displaced by a ship when afloat, equaling the ship's gross weight with its load.

DOUBLE BOTTOM. A vessel's bottom made in two thicknesses with a space between, leaving compartments which are used for ballast, water-tanks, fuel, oil, etc. DRAFT. The depth of water that a vessel draws, measured vertically from the lowest points of the hull to the surface of the water.

DRAG. The distance which one end of a vessel's keel is above the other end, when she is not on an even keel, so called because this creates resistance or drag in going through the

water.

DRY DOCK.- A dock into which a vessel may be floated, and then by removing the water leave the interior dry for repairing.

-

DUNNAGE. Heavy pieces of wood or the like used to prevent cargo from rolling or shifting its position.

EVEN KEEL.- Level keel, said of a vessel lying normally level in the water.

FAIR LEAD. The lead of a rope in a direction that will not permit it to foul or be subject to excessive friction: also a small fitting for changing the direction of a rope without causing too much friction.

FAKE. A single turn or coil of a line, rope or cable. FALL. A hoisting rope depending from a block or tackle. FENDER. A shield-like device for hanging on a vessel's hull at the water-line, to receive the shock of contact with a dock, pier, etc.

FORE. At, near or toward the bow, as fore-deck, forehook (a V-brace in a vessel's bow), foreship (the bows), fore-yard (the lowest yard of a foremast).

FORE AND AFT.- Extending or situated longitudinally of a vessel; in line with the keel.

FORECASTLE. The forward upper part of the hull, or a compartment there; usually the quarters for the crew. FORWARD.- The locality at, near or toward the bow. FRAMING. The framework or stiffening members; the skeleton of a ship.

FREEBOARD. The part of a vessel's side that is free and clear when she is loaded, measured as the vertical distance from the upper water-tight deck or top of the bulwarks to the load water line.

FUTTOCK. A foot-hook or curved timber in the frame of a wooden ship, extending from a floor-timber or crosstimber upward.

FUTTOCK-PLATE.- An iron plate on a mast head for holding the dead-eyes of the futtock-shrouds.

FUTTOCK-SHROUDS.- Short shrouds at the junction of a mast with its topmast.

GALLEY. The place where the cooking is done on a vessel; the kitchen.

GANGWAY. A passageway or opening in the bulwarks for use in boarding a ship.

GANT-LINE or GIRT-LINE. A temporary rigging of a rope through a block at the masthead.

GARBOARD STRAKE. The streak of shell plating next to the keel: also called sand strake.

GARNET. A tackle or purchase, as the clew-garnet.
GASKET. A furling line tapered for use on a yard or

boom.

GIMBAL. A support for a compass or other object which it is desired to maintain in level position, often made in pairs, and permitting the object supported to swing level regardless of a ship's rolling or pitching.

GROSS TONNAGE. -Total carrying capacity; technically. a figure obtained by dividing the total volume of the shipin cubic feet, by 100.

GUNWALE. The side of a ship at the edge of the weather deck; specifically, the upper wale of planking or plating covering the upper end of the framing, just below the bulwarks HALLIARD OR HALYARD.-A light rope for hoisting a sail, yard, etc. HATCH.

in cargo.

A large opening through a deck, as for taking

HAWSE. The locality of the hawse-holes in a vessel; also the position of the mooring cables; and the space between a vessel and her anchor. The hawse-hole is a hole in a vessel's side for the passage of a hawser, and when not in use is elosed with a hawse-plug. A hawse-pipe is a large fitting attached to the bow through which the anchor chain passes. HAWSER. A large rope, 5 to 10 inches in circumference, usually made left-handed with nine strands.

HEAD. The forward or upper end of a vessel, mast, etc. HEEL. The hindermost part of a vessel, keel, mast, etc. HELM. The tiller; also, the tiller and rudder mechanism collectively; also the direction in which the tiller is turned, being opposite to the rudder's position.

HOGGING. Bending strain lengthwise of a ship, tending to allow the bow and stern to settle lower than the section amidships. See SAGGING in this article.

HOLD. The space below the lowest deck; the main compartment in the lower part of a vessel, for carrying cargo. HOUNDS.- A pair of projections at a masthead, for supporting the top trestletrees and rigging.

HULL.The body of a ship or vessel; the framing as covered with planking or plating. The term is sometimes used to include the decks.

INBOARD. All inside a ship, toward the centre line.
INTERCOSTAL.-A space between the ribs.

JACKSTAFF.- A short flagstaff, as on the bowsprit, for flying the jack.

KEEL. The main lower, longitudinal member of a vessel's frame, the first part laid on the ways, originally a very heavy beam, now a series of plates riveted together, and extending from stem to stern along the central line of a ship's bottom.

KEELSON. A beam or stringer, extending over or along a keel; an auxiliary or strengthening keel-piece.

KNIGHTHEADS.- A pair of uprights supporting the bowsprit on either side.

LAUNCHING. The sliding of a ship or boat from the launching ways on which she is constructed, into the water. Vessels are usually launched stern first, but occasionally sideways. During launching the weight of the hull is borne by the sliding ways, which are attached to the hull and slide with it down the ground ways. Much of the construction of the upper works, decoration, etc., is completed after the ship is floated. The term launch is also applied to ship's boat with sloop-sail or motor; also to a pleasure boat, as a naphtha launch.

LENGTH- Properly the extreme longitudinal dimension of a vessel: in practice, restricted to between perpendiculars," the length from the stem to the after perpendicular or stern post, except when expressed as "length over all,' when it is measured from the forward end of the stem to the aft of the stern.

LINES. The shape or contour of a vessel, as shown on the plans. When drawn full size on the floor of a mold loft, the templates may be made directly from them. LONGITUDINAL. That which extends fore and aft, especially a vertical member running practically parallel with the centre vertical keel through a double bottom.

METACENTRE.- The centre of gravity of a vessel, vertically in line with the centre of buoyancy where the vessel is upright. The higher it is above the centre of gravity, the more stable is the vessel.

MAGAZINE. A compartment or storage room on a vessel of war for safe storage of the ammunition.

MARLINE. A two-stranded cord or small rope for working or winding around large ropes or cables, as in splicing.

MARTINGALE. A vertical spar under the bowsprit, a dolphin-striker; also a lower stay for a jib-boom.

MAST.-A long stick of timber or steel, placed nearly upright in the centre line of a ship, originally for carrying sails, on steamships serving for a variety of other purposes. Large masts are built up of pieces, and stepped directly on the keelson. It is common to give them a slight rake toward the stern. The principal parts of a mast are named the head (or masthead), hounding (a projection at the head to support trestle trees and rigging), housing (a hollow in a lower mast to receive a top-mast), neck and heel. A military mast is a stout upright structure carrying one or more turrets for firing small guns, and protected observation towers. The United States navy military masts are commonly made of rods arranged in open work, so constructed that they may be shot through and through frequently without falling.

MIDSHIP. At the middle of a ship's length: also written amidship.

MOORING.- Securing a ship so that she is not only anchored or tied, but unable to swing with the tide or cur

rent, called also permanent mooring. In a less restricted sense, securing a ship with two anchors so that she cannot swing much.

MOULD LOFT.- A cargo loft in which the larger parts and framing of a vessel are laid out to full size.

NET TONNAGE.- Actual available tonnage, calculated by making deduction from the gross tonnage to allow for space not available for cargo.

OAKUM. Hemp fibre for filling seams, especially that obtained by untwisting and breaking up old ropes.

OUTBOARD.-Away from the centre line, toward the side

of a ship.

OUTRIGGER.-A long float braced on one side of a canoe to give stability. Also a bracket built out from the side of a boat to hold a rowlock, Also any boom or spar braced outboard for some special purpose.

OVERHANG. Any portion of the hull or superstructure of a vessel outside a line drawn vertically from the waterline.

PANTING. The in and out movement of shell-plating under the influence of varying temperature, strains, etc. PILLAR. A column or stanchion, as for supporting the

deck.

PINTLE. A fitting or pivoted pin on the rudder, turning on a gudgeon.

POOP. The after, upper portion of the hull of a vessel where the steering gear is commonly located. The poop deck is a short deck sometimes placed above the aft part of a spar deck.

PORT.- The left hand side of a vessel, when facing forward, opposed to starboard. Also an annular opening in the hull, or a porthole.

PROPELLER.— A device of angular blades, arranged to balance each other and rotate rapidly in the water, driving a vessel on the principle of a screw. It has almost wholly superseded the paddle-wheel because it is mechanically

superior.

PUNGY. A flat-bottomed sailboat, narrow and sharpbowed, and usually schooner-rigged, employed on the southeastern United States coast.

PUNT. A flat-bottomed, square-ended, small fishing or pleasure boat, for use in shallow water, propelled by pushing it along with a pole. Hence the verb, to punt, or push along such a boat. Small barges on English canals that are propelled in the same way also bear the name.

PURCHASE. A device for giving a leverage or turn with a rope, as a deadeye and rope, or a pulley and tackle. A double purchase is a rope rove through two single blocks and is also called a double whip. A twofold purchase consists of two double blocks, with ropes arranged to pull oppositely and thus balance. A threefold purchase employs two three-sheaved blocks.

QUARTER. That part of the side of a vessel's stern that is aft of the main chains; also the part of a yard that is outside the slings.

QUARTER DECK. That portion of the weather deck nearest the stern, between the poop and the mainmast. It is reserved for officers' use.

QUARTER GALLERY. A balcony built on a vessel's quarter, often containing a washroom.

RAIL- The balustrade on the upper edge of the bul

wark.

RAKE. Inclination from the perpendicular: applied especially to the degree of backward inclination of a vessel's masts or funnels. A craft is said to be raking when her masts or funnels have a more than ordinary lean away from the upright.

RATLINE. A small cross-rope between the shrouds equivalent to the rung of a ladder.

RIG. The style of arrangement of the ropes, sails, spars, etc., of a vessel: frequently used in compound words, as ship-rig, yacht-rig, sloop-rig, etc.

RIGGING. The cordage or wire rope equipment of a vessel. The permanent ropes are called standing rigging and the movable ones running rigging.

RISE. Increase of elevation; higher position.

RISE OF BOTTOM.- The amount that the flat portion of a ship's bottom is elevated above the horizontal from the keel to the side of the ship.

ROLL. The motion of a vessel from side to side, causing an alternate raising and lowering of each side of the decks. RUDDER. A flat, approximately triangular structure, swinging from an upright hinged support at a vessel's stern so that all or most of the blade is under water. It is surmounted by a tiller fixed horizontally through the head, and is used for steering. The rudder of a large vessel has a complicated steering gear, power operated, and directed from a wheelhouse.

RUDDER POST.- A heavy vertical post at the after end of the stern frame, which supports the rudder.

RUDDER STOP. A fitting to limit the swing of the rudder.

SAGGING.-A straining of the ship that tends to make the middle portion lower than the bow and stern; opposed to hogging.

SAMSON POST.- A heavy vertical post or stanchion from which a boom may be swung for handling cargo.

'731

SCHOONER. A two-masted vessel with fore and aft rigged sails.

SCUPPERS.-Holes in a vessel's side for the deck water to run off; hence, a drain from the edge of a deck, discharging overboard.

SEA ANCHOR.- A float, as of broken spars, lashed together and thrown out to windward from a disabled vessel to serve as a drag, that it may ride out a gale.

SHACKLE. A form of ring for locking a porthole. SHAFT. A very heavy, long cylindrical steel forging for connecting the engine with the paddle-wheel or propeller. SHAFT TUNNEL. In a modern steamship, an enclosed alley-way containing the shaft, and running fore and aft from the engine-room to the after peak tank.

SHEAVE. A pulley-wheel as used in a block for turning a rope. The word is primarily used for the grooved wheel, but the entire pulley-block is sometimes called a sheave. SHEER. Fore and aft rise of the deck lines giving curvature to the deck.

SHEER PLAN. A side elevation of a ship's form. SHEER STRAKE.- The upper strake of the main shell plating, just below the bulwarks.

SHEET. A sail or piece of sail-cloth. Also one of the lower corner ropes of a sail, used for sheeting or stretching the clews.

SHEET-ANCHOR. An emergency anchor, usually hung on either side of the waist of a ship.

SHELL PLATING.-The steel plating forming the outer skin of the hull.

SHIP. A square-rigged sailing vessel, of three of more masts; also, a large steam-driven craft; popularly, any large floating craft.

SHROUDS. Two or more stout ropes, often of wire, from a masthead to the rim or side of a ship, constituting a part of the standing rigging, and being supplied with ratlines serving as a rope-ladder for ascending and descending. The stay ropes or chains of a topmast or bowsprit are also sometimes termed shrouds. See FUTTOCK-SHROUDS in this article.

SKIDS.- Parallel timbers for protecting the side of a vessel when hoisting in cargo, etc. They are used also as dunnage.

SLING. A stout rope or chain, for suspending a lower yard or gaff.

SLOOP. A fore-and-aft rigged vessel with one mast. SNUBBING-POST.- A post or pile at a pier or wharf, around which a cable can be turned, to check the motion of a vessel in landing.

SPAR. Any round timber for supporting a sail or sails, as a mast, yard, boom, etc.

SPAR DECK. The deck on which spars are stored, being the upper deck, and including usually both quarter deck and forecastle.

SPRIT. A light spar set diagonally upward from a mast to support the outer corner of a fore-and-aft sail, termed a spritsail. By this arrangement a higher sail may be carried than can be swung from the mast direct.

STABILITY. The tendency of a ship to remain upright, resisting rolling and pitching.

STANCHION. An upright post or supporting pillar, on a

vessel.

STARBOARD. The right hand side of a vessel when facing forward: opposed to port.

STAY. A rope used as a tension piece to support or brace a spar.

STEALER. A strake of shell plating that does not extend all the distance to the bow or stern.

STEM. A nearly vertical member forming the extreme bow of a ship, formerly a very heavy timber continuation of the keelson, now a stout forging or casting running from the keel to the forecastle deck.

STEMSON. A curved timber or supporting member back of the stern, resting on the keelson.

STERN. The after end of a vessel's hull. STERN FRAME. A large casting attached to the after end of the keel to form the ship's stern. It holds the rudder post and propeller post, and has an aperture for the propeller shaft.

STERNSON. A curved timber or supporting member on the sternpost, being practically an upright continuation of the keelson.

STRAKE. (The word is a corruption of streak). A foreand-aft course or streak of shell or other plating.

STRINGER. A fore-and-aft continuous member, for giving greater stiffening.

TACKLE. A set of ropes, pulley-blocks, hooks, etc., constituting a hoisting equipment, as a yard-tackle.

TAFFRAIL. A rail around a vessel's stern: formerly spelled tafferel, from the Dutch tafereel (table) applied to the upper surface of a high stern.

--

TANK TOP. The inner thickness of a ship's double bottom, as considered from the inside.

THOLES. A pair of pins for keeping an oar in position where it crosses a boat's gunwale.

THRUST-BLOCK.- A heavy bearing for receiving the thrust or pressure of a propeller-shaft.

TIE PLATE. A single course of plating run fore and aft under the beams of a wooden deck to strengthen the structure.

TILLER.-The arm attached horizontally to a rudder head for operating the rudder.

TRANSOM.-The aftermost transverse frame in a ship. TRANSVERSE FRAME.- An athwartship member of a ship's framing placed approximately vertical and resembling a rib.

TREND.- Angular direction, as of a cable with the keelline, or of an anchor-shank where it joins the arms.

TRESTLETREES.- A pair of timbers set at right angles to a lower mast, to support the top members.

TRIM.-Fit position for sailing, on even keel, with ballast, etc., properly adjusted.

TUMBLE HOME.- An inboard sloping of a vessel's side above the line of greatest beam.

UPPER DECK.- The highest complete deck.

VERTICAL KEEL. A row of plating extending vertically along the centre of a flat plate keel. Also called centre keelson.

WAIST. The central section of a ship, between the quarter deck and the forecastle.

WARPING. The shifting of a floating vessel to a new position by means of a cable, (often called a warp) attached to a pile.

WATER LINE. The lowest visible part of a ship's hull when in the water; hence, a line corresponding with such level, as the load water-line, light water-line.

WEATHER DECK.- A deck exposed to the weather having no overhead protection.

WELL. A compartment or boxed-in space low down in a vessel's hull, as for enclosing a pump, a propeller-shaft or for holding water, etc.

WINCH.- Originally, a windlass, now a small hoisting engine.

YARD. A spar for carrying sail, set athwartship, and the principal member of a square rig. It is nearly cylindrical, but tapers slightly toward the ends. When set obliquely, it is a lateen yard.

YARD-ARM.- The tip of a yard, of historical interest as the proper place from which to hang a pirate.

SHIPPING SUBSIDIES, in the broader economic sense, any bounty paid by a government with the object of encouraging the building and navigation of merchant ships. Under this definition would be included, and rightly so, the postal "subventions" paid by many governments for regular mail service between home and foreign ports, for the largest effect of such service is the development and maintenance of a merchant marine.

Subsidies to shipping have been classified as direct and indirect: the first where money is paid to the shipowners; the second where they are favored in other ways. Direct subsidies have been granted by various nations and at various times upon five different basic plans, as follows: (1) on the number of days of actual sailing in the year; (2) on the year's mileage; (3) on the tonnage of the vessels engaged in the trade; (4) on the tonnage as modified by speed; (5) on a scale in which tonnage, speed and the amount of cargo actually carried in the year are controlling factors. Indirect subsidies are of great variety, including government loans at low interest to shipbuilders; free registry; bounties to certain industries which produce export goods; remission or reimbursement of canal and port dues; restriction of coastal trade to domestic shipping, etc.

Most of the maritime nations have adopted the principle of shipping subsidies. France has given the most money, but without the increase in her merchant marine that such expenditure might be expected to induce. At the beginning of the European War, Japan was paying out in subsidies annually about $7,000,000; and Japan's merchant fleet has grown and prospered exceedingly, but so many other factors are to be considered that it is an open question whether the system of subsidies is to be given the credit. On the other hand, Great Britain has built up by far the largest of all national merchant marines without subsidies. The methods employed by the several countries

in recent years in fostering their merchant fleets are arranged below in alphabetical order.

Austria.-Trade bounties; depreciation bounties; naval bounties; exemption from trade and income taxes; mail subventions; reimbursements of Suez Canal dues.

Belgium. Before the war subsidies were granted to German steamship lines to prevent them from forsaking the port of Antwerp. In June 1916 the government entered into agreement with the Royal Belgium Lloyd under which it guarantees Interest on loans and mortgages to the extent of 100,000,000 francs in aid of the establishment of a Belgian merchant marine independent of all foreign influence.

Denmark grants an annual subsidy to one steamship company operating a line to British ports. There is a reimbursement to shipbuilders of 2 per cent of the duties collected on materials actually used in domestic shipyards. Postal subventions are small.

France.- Construction bounties per gross registered ton, and in case of the installation of new machinery, an allowance based on the weight of the new work, navigation bounties to steamships not above 3,000 tons and having a speed not less than 10 knots, and to sailing vessels; postal subventions to colonial lines, based on regular service carried on by vessels of stated speed. The French government has recently voted a fund of 160,000,000 francs for loans to shipbuilders to aid in rebuilding the ships lost in the war.

Germany. Yearly, mileage and speed subsidies to ships built of German materials in German shipyards, and special subsidies to lines running to North and South American ports and to East Africa. Indirect aid was given by preferential rates on government-owned railways and through the control of emigration, which was turned to the German lines.

Great Britain.- No direct subsidies; moderate mail subventions are granted to lines operating under postal contracts.

Holland.- Lower rates of duty assessed on imports brought in on Dutch ships; annual postal and colonial subventions.

Italy. For years it has refunded to steamers the sums paid for Suez and Corinth Canal dues and has paid bounties on all coal brought from beyond Gibraltar; a mileage subsidy to Italian-owned vessels operating in the Mediterranean and beyond Suez. Besides the regular postal subventions, a speed bounty is paid to all ships of 16 knots or above. Since 1914 shipbuilding materials have been on the free list and a bonus has been granted to shipbuilders. Recent laws exempt Italian subjects from tax for three years on steel vessels purchased and for four years on those built in Italy. Brazil contributes an annual subsidy to Italian lines touching her ports, with the object of encouraging Italian immigration to the coffee districts.

Japan. Reserves coasting trade to Japanese ships operated by Japanese companies; shipbuilding bounties and navigation bounties; special subsidies to speedy vessels to Pacific Coast ports and to South American ports and to a line using the Panama Canal with a New York terminus.

Norway. Reimbursement of import duties paid on foreign materials actually used in Norwegian shipyards for building or repair; subsidies to Norwegian steamship companies

maintaining service on non-paying routes; subsidies to vessels in the coasting trade; mail subventions; tonnage refund on vessels built in Norwegian yards of Norwegian materials.

ocean

Russia. Reservation of coasting trade to Russian vessels; loans to steamship companies; exemption from customs charges to going vessels owned by Russians; bounties on ocean liners and inland river steamers; reimbursement of Suez Canal dues.

Spain.- Navigation bounties to Spanish ships manned by Spanish crews, based on actual mileage per ton gross; construction subsidies per gross registered ton, with an additional 10 per cent for each knot of speed above 14; postal subventions; a levy of onethird the bounty in case a Spanish vessel was sold abroad.

Sweden. Refund of duties paid on construction and repair material used in Swedish shipyards; loans to steamship companies at low rates of interest; mail subventions. A new policy under discussion providing direct subsidies (1918).

United States.- Coasting trade reserved to American ships; heavy mail subventions. The government program as to ships built during the war and subsequently in government yards is laid down in the Merchant Marine Act of 5 June 1920 the chief provisions of which are given below in this article.

In the United States the first act authorizing postal subventions was that of 3 March 1845. Power was given to the PostmasterGeneral to make contracts for payments of specified rates on weight of mail carried to foreign ports-24 cents per half ounce for ports 3,000 miles distant; 10 cents per half ounce to Mexico and the West Indies. In 1847 a contract was made with the Ocean Steam Navigation Company for a mail service between New York and Bremen and Havre. The company was to receive $100,000 for six return voyages to Bremen per year and $75,000 for six voyages to Havre. In 1850 the Collins Line, plying to Liverpool, agreed to accept $19,250 per voyage, making 20 voyages a year. A number of similar contracts were made about the same time, but in 1858 the granting of mail subventions was abandoned and vessels carrying the mails were allowed only the sea postage plus the inland postage on mails carried. Postal subventions were allowed to lines running between New York and Rio de Janeiro and between the Pacific Coast and China, but were discontinued in 1875 after running 10 years. In 1891 a law was enacted authorizing the Postmaster-General to make contracts with American shipowners for carrying the mails between American and foreign ports. Steamships were placed in four classes: iron and steel vessels of not less than 8,000 tons with a speed of 20 knots per hour; iron and steel vessels of not less than 5,000 tons, with a speed of 16 knots; iron and steel ships of not less than 2,500 tons and a speed of 14 knots; iron steel and wooden ships of not less than 1,500 tons and a speed of 12 knots. This law is still in force, so far as it does not conflict with the Act of 1920. The requirement is that contracts be let to the lowest bidder who is qualified to perform them.

733

In spite of the persistent agitation of the shipping interests a general objection to all ship subsidies has prevailed in this country. In 1905 the total tonnage of the United States engaged in foreign trade was only 943,750 as contrasted with 2,496,894 tons in 1861. In 1920 the tonnage as a result of the war had increased to 12,406,000 tons. Since 1840 the United Kingdom has granted liberal subventions for carrying the mails, while in America no action was taken until 1891. The Merchant Marine Act of 5 June 1920 recognizes in part the principle of subsidies. It removed limitations on the rates of mail subsidies, leaving their final determination in the hands of the United States Shipping Board and the Postmaster General within the limits, however, of their respective appropriations by Congress. The Shipping Board may use, out of its revenues, $25,000,000 a year, for five years, as loans at interest to American steamship builders, advancing not more than two-thirds of the cost of construction. A section provides also that the net income, for 10 years of American-owned ships in foreign trade, is exempt from the income tax provided the owner invests the sum of his war-profits and excess-profits taxes in building new ships.

SHIPPING OF THE WORLD. When the Great War broke out in 1914, the world's shipping had reached its greatest known proportions. The year 1913 had been a record year in shipbuilding with nearly all the maritime nations. Great Britain had launched 641 steamers aggregating 1,919,578 tons and 47 sailing vessels aggregating 12,575 tons, the highest figure ever recorded for a year's output of tonnage in that country. Not all of this tonnage went to swell the numbers of the British fleet. Holland bought 89,992 tons; Norway, 54,111 tons; Greece, 39,999 tons; the British colonies, 37,118 tons, and Russia, 31,217 tons. With the exception of the United States, whose output of shipping for the year fell short of her 1912 figures by some 8,000 tons (due to a decrease of 42,000 tons in the yards of the Great Lakes), and slight decreases from previous record figures in France and Japan, all the other shipbuilding countries made substantial gains over their previous records. During 1913, then, the new ships launched had added 3,188,578 tons in steamers and 144,304 tons in sailing vessels to the world's grand fleet. The previous high record had been 2,919,763 tons (steam and sail combined) in 1906, and the average yearly addition to the world's fleet for 20 years past had been 2,341,500 tons. However, the yearly additions were not all clear gain. The losses in 1913 from collision, burning, foundering, wrecks, missing and abandonment at sea, together with those of vessels broken up as unseaworthy, amounted to 499,000 tons of steam vessels and 183,000 tons of sailing vessels, so that the net addition to the world's shipping in 1913 was 2,690,000 tons of steamers, and there was a net loss of 39,000 tons of sailing craft. This figure was very small by comparison with the losses of other years. In 1910 the tonnage lost amounted to 947,690 tons, and the average annual loss for 20 years had been 765,000 tons.

For a long period of years the tendency in the world's grand fleet has been an increase of steam vessels and a decrease of sailing vessels. The one exception has been Finland, whose