734

persistent building of sailing ships has prevented any notable decrease in the sailing tonnage in Russia's shipping. Norway's sailing tonnage has been declining since 1890; Sweden's since 1880; Denmark's since 1880; Germany's since 1880; Holland's since 1860; France's since 1860; Italy's since 1870; Austria-Hungary's since 1870; Greece's since 1870. In the case of the United Kingdom the date was 1870 and for the United States 1861. Not to go farther back than 1900, the percentage of sailing vessels in the world's grand fleet was 23 per cent; in 1915 it had been fallen to 7 per

cent.

The world's shipping on 30 June 1914, as recorded by the French Bureau Veritas, totaled 17,135 steamers of 100 tons or over, aggregating 23,840,675 net tons; and 21,924 sailing vessels of 50 tons and upward, aggregating 5,629,942 net tons: a grand total of 29,470,637 net tons. also recorded as 45,273,783 gross tons, a figure also of no small importance, as the sinkings by submarines are reported on the basis of the gross tonnage; the net tonnage being the vital figure in the carrying capacity of the grand fleet.

Table A, showing the distribution of 99.7 per cent of the world's grand fleet, was compiled from the records of the Bureau Veritas. The 26 countries named are arranged in the order of their steam tonnage. Only steam vessels of 100 net tons and over and only the sailing vessels of 50 net tons and upward have been counted. Many highly interesting facts appear from the figures in the table, among them the very large tonnage in sailing vessels, both actual and comparative, owned in the United States in the year cited. Though Great Britain shows a much larger number of such craft, their tonnage averages only 190 tons as against 420 tons for the United States vessels. Norway's sailing fleet is notable in showing the TABLE A.- SHIPPING OF PRINCIPAL NATIONS, 30 JUNE 1914.

largest average tonnage in the table-750 tons; Belgium following with 730 tons and Peru third on that score, with 540 tons. The largest average tonnage for steam vessels is shown by Germany-1,880 tons; followed by AustriaHungary, 1,800 tons; Netherlands, 1,740 tons, and Great Britain, 1,640 tons.

With the breaking out of the war in July 1914 the destruction by war vessels of the merchant fleets of the belligerents began, and this destruction on the part of Germany and her allies was soon extended to include the shipping of neutrals carrying contraband, few_attempts being made to capture them. In February 1917 the German government declared promiscuous war on all merchant vessels of whatever country found in certain specified areas of the open sea. This condition had already prevailed in some waters for several months previous to the declaration, and many vessels were sunk outside of the forbidden areas, and even those bearing safe conduct from Germany and in the so-called "safe" channels met the same fate. The records of losses from these causes stop with April 1917, at which time the British government ceased the publication of tonnage lost, and gave thenceforth only the number of vessels lost from week to week. A carefully worked-out summary of the losses by mine and submarine from 8 Aug. 1914 to 26 April 1917 shows a total of close to 5,740,000 tons, of which 1,653,654 tons belonged to neutral nations. Of the neutrals, Norway had suffered the most, losing 436 vessels, aggregating 987,816 tons; Holland came next, with a loss of 76 vessels of 148,921 tons. Greece lost 60 ships aggregating 147,923 tons, and Denmark 114 ships, aggregating 123,385 tons.

Table B is introduced to show by the latest complete figures available the condition of the world's shipping at the date given, as it is compiled from records of the Bureau Veritas. The TABLE B.- SHIPPING OF PRINCIPAL NATIONS, 30 JUNE 1917.

showing is that after three years of the most destructive warfare the world has ever seen, the world's grand fleet consisted of 17,135 steamers aggregating 25,550,159 net tons, and 19,985 sailing vessels aggregating 4,731,707 tons. At their face these figures seem to show the same number of steamers and a gain of 1,710484 tons of steam tonnage; and a loss of 1,939 in the number of sailing vessels, with a loss of 898,235 tons of sailing tonnage. This is not quite in accordance with the facts. Many of the sailing vessels apparently lost have been fitted with steam or gasoline engines and have thus passed into the class of "steamers." In taking account of the world's tonnage it is to be remembered that under normal conditions the yearly addition to the grand fleet would have been the average previously quoted-2,341,500 tons per year. In three years the total addition would have been 7,024,500 tons, instead of the showing for 30 June 1917 of a net gain of 812,249 tons — revealing a net loss due to the war of 6,212,251 tons; a figure not very far removed from the actual losses recorded up to 26 April of that year.

With

A studious comparison of the two tables shows losses in steam tonnage by Germany, Sweden, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Greece, Belgium, Brazil, Argentine Republic, China, Chile, Turkey, Cuba, Uruguay, Mexico and Peru; and gains by Great Britain, United States, Norway, Japan, France, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, Denmark, Portugal and Rumania. the exception of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey, whose losses represent vessels seized by belligerents, or, in the case of Turkey, by destruction in warfare, the apparent losses do not show destruction but indicate sales of shipping to the principal_allies fighting against the Central Powers. The large reduction of the sailing tonnage of the United States is accounted for by the installation of power, placing them in the steamer class. Another very large factor to be considered in making comparisons is that the allied nations opposing the Central Powers withdrew from their chant fleets a prodigious amount of tonnage for military purposes, and this does not appear in the columns of these tables. Of Germany's and Austria-Hungary's ships in foreign ports many were seized, at a loss to them of not less than 1,000,000 tons. United States alone took over 636,036 tons. Figures issued by the United States Shipping Board in March 1919 place the world's steam tonnage at 37,010,000 gross tons; the net loss due to the war at 4,245,000 gross tons -- which includes 1,000,000 tons as "abandoned"; and the further loss of the increase to have been normally expected, at 12,000,000 tons: making the world shortage attributable to the war, 16,245,000 tons on the date cited.

mer

The

When the armistice was signed 11 Nov. 1918 the United States had a merchant marine of 1,366 steamers aggregating 4,685,263 gross tons, and 747 sailing vessels aggregating 829,919 gross tons; a combined total of 5,515,182 gross tons, as compared with 2,696,763 tons in 1914 a gain of over 125 per cent. From such figures as are available Table C has been compiled showing the losses, replacements, and existing merchant tonnage in June 1920 of the principal maritime countries of the world. See MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES.

735

SHIPS THAT PASS IN THE NIGHT, the title of a widely-read story by Beatrice Harraden. It achieved notoriety when it was published in 1894 to some extent, very possibly on account of its taking title. The scene is laid in a Swiss winter resort for consumptives.

SHIPTON, ship'ton, Mother, an English prophetess about whose existence there seems to be no certainty, while there is no doubt that many of the sayings attributed to her were fabricated by others. According to S. Baker, who published Mother Shipton's pretended prophecies in 1797, she was born near Knaresborough, Yorkshire, in July 1488, and baptized as Ursula Southiel. She died, according to the same authority, at over 70 years of age, but it was not until 1641 that a pamphlet appeared containing some of her alleged predictions. In 1645 all her prophecies were considered as having been fulfilled. In 1862 a prediction was made, with Mother Shipton's name appended to it, that the world would come to an end in 1881. It caused some excitement among the ignorant.

SHIPWORM. See TEREDO.

SHIPWRECKS. See DISASTERS OF THE WORLD, NOTABLE.

SHIR ALI KHAN, shēr ä'le khän, Amir of Afghanistan: b. about 1825; d. Mazar-iSherif, 21 Feb. 1879. He was the younger son by a favorite wife of Dost Mohammed and was nominated successor to the throne to the exclusion of Mohammed Afzal Khan, the eldest son by another wife. Dost Mohammed died in 1863 and a fratricidal war ensued to determine the succession. In December 1863 Shir Ali secured the recognition of the British government to his succession, and in the contest that followed Mohammed Afzal was taken prisoner. The brother and son of the latter, who retained possession of Afghan-Turkestan, renewed the war and in a battle which took place in May

1866 the majority of Shir Ali's troops deserted to the enemy. For the next three years Shir Ali's fortunes ebbed and flowed and at times he seemed likely to lose his throne forever. In 1869, however, with the recognition of the British he was fully established on the throne at Kabul. In 1877 he became estranged from the British government, and refused to receive a British mission at Kabul. At the same time he made overtures to Russia and received her mission, while relations between Russia and Great Britain were strained. The British mission being a second time repulsed, war was declared and the British invaded Afghanistan. Shir Ali fled at the approach of the British and determined upon making personal appeal at Petrograd for an alliance against the British. The Russian government sent him messages declining to enter into any such alliance, but he persisted in his journey until he had crossed the Russian frontier, where he died suddenly. See AFGHANISTAN.

SHIRAS, shi'ras, George, Jr., American jurist: b. Pittsburgh, Pa., 26 Jan. 1832. He was graduated from Yale in 1853 and from the Yale Law School the next year. Received the degree of LL.D. from Yale in 1883. Admitted to the bar in his native city in 1856 he practised there until in July 1892 he was appointed associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. Retired 1 March 1903 on age limit. He died at Pittsburgh, 2 Aug. 1924.

The

SHIRAZ, she'räz, Persia, capital of the province of Fars, lies in a high valley, 220 miles southwest of Ispahan, and is reached by lofty passes. It lies in a broad plain, 115 miles east-northeast of Bushire and 35 miles southwest of the ancient Persepolis, the ruins of which still exist. Its nearest point is Kodijan. It is much praised in Persian poetry for its climate, its wine and rose-gardens. city, with thousands of the inhabitants, was nearly destroyed for the third time in its history in 1853 by earthquake. The town now rebuilt contains mosques, a bazar, but nothing noteworthy; the suburbs are more attractive. At the north are the tombs of the celebrated poets Hafiz and Sadi, both natives of the town. It is a centre of trade, due to its position on the commercial routes leading from the port of Bushire. Shirâz is famous for its wines and inlaid work of wood and metals. It has extensive manufactures of silk and cotton, firearms, cutlery, glass, pottery, swords, etc. Pop. 40,000

SHIRÉ, she'rā, East Africa, a river in the southeastern part of the continent. It rises in Lake Nyassa, and, after a course of 370 miles, flows into the Zambesi. It is navigable except where interrupted for 35 miles by the Murchison cataract and rapids, which have a fall of 1,200 feet. It flows through a rich agricultural Country and has become an important commercial route to the lakes region. The Shiré Highlands are included in Nyasaland. There are several Scotch and English missions and settlements in the Shiré country. Cotton and grain are the chief products. The Shiré was discovered by Livingstone (1858-63), and the district was annexed as British territory in 1889. Consult Buchanan, J., "The Shiré Highlands (1885).

SHIRE, sher or shir, in the United States the more modern term county replaces this

older name. Shire is an English term, still in general use in England, Wales and Scotland, although superseded by the modern form in most places; thus Derbyshire, Glamorganshire and Renfrewshire are "counties." In the United States counties are the first division of the State and township the next. The use of the word shire in the States has no significance as to division; it is merely a portion of a name. Thus we have the "county of Yorkshire." But in England this is different. The suffix "shire" so used is in itself an indication that the division is a county.

There have been stated different periods at which, it is said, England was divided into shires. It is probable that all such statements are incorrect, and that although there exists in England a system of subdivisions known as shires, the country perhaps never was consciously so divided. If it be remembered that the Saxon people were a collection of clans and that these clans were divided into families, two or three large families to the clan, the seeming inconsistency of the above statement is explained. The head of the family was the supreme law-giver in the family. He himself was under the leadership of the head of the clan, or tribal community. These tribal communities united to form what is known as hundreds, and the hundreds united to form shires. Thus the country instead of being divided into shires was formed by the union of many separate shires, each of which was, practically, an independent kingdom. Some of these small districts still exist-Norhamshire in Northumberland and Richmondshire in Yorkshire. It was after this union of shires under one national head, not a spontaneous process, but one of slow and at times retrogradal growth, that the shire took its position as a subordinate part of the kingdom. As such it had at its head the shire-reeves, whence the modern sheriff. The shire-reeve preceding the Norman Conquest was one of the two heads of the shire organizations, the other being the ealdorman (or earl), whence comes our modern alderman. The ealdorman seemed to represent the old organization and dignity of the shire when it was an independent kingdom; he shared certain offices with the bishop. But the shire-reeve was more particularly the representative of the king, and after the Norman Conquest he became purely a royal officer, with his importance considerably curtailed. He held the sheriff's tourn,

an annual court to which came the vassals of the king. The appeal from this court was to the king himself, and from this appeal came the growth of the King's Court, in its three branches of King's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer. This court assessed taxes, also, and thus the sheriff became the financial head of the shire; to the Sheriff's Court, too, fell the election of knights of the shire, thus giving it the function of an assembly for the choice of shire representatives. From the time of the Plantagenet accession to the throne the importance of the shire organization decreased, the sheriff now being merely an aid to the County Court (q.v.). (See COUNTY; FEUDAL SYSTEM). Consult J. R. Green's History of the English People,' Vol. I (1870-82); Conquest of England' (1884); 'The Making of England' (1885); Freeman's 'Norman Conquest,' Vol. I, chs. ii-iv (1870).

SHIRLAW, sher'lå, Walter, American painter: b. Paisley, Scotland, 6 Aug. 1838; d. Madrid, 1909. He was brought to the United States in his second year, and began his artistic career in early manhood as a bank-note engraver. He exhibited for the first time in the National Academy of Design in 1861. After a course of seven years' study in Munich (1870– 78) he adopted genre-painting as his specialty, and also accomplished a great deal of work in decoration and book and magazine illustration. He was one of the founders and the first president of the Society of American Artists, and in 1888 he became a National Academician. A memorial exhibition of 200 of his works was held in New York and other cities in 1911.

SHIRLEY, sher'li, James, English dramatist: b. London, 18 Sept. 1596; d. there, 29 Oct. 1666. He was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, and, having taken holy orders, obtained a curacy near Saint Albans. He soon afterward went over to the Church of Rome. Then he removed to London, became a writer for the stage and acquired a reputation which caused him to be taken into the service of Queen Henrietta Maria. His first comedy was licensed in 1625, and from that date he produced many plays in rapid succession. In 1636 he went to Ireland to assist Ogilby in the management of the new theatre at Dublin. After his return, probably early in 1640, he wrote much, and was conceded the foremost of English playwrights. He died of exposure during the great fire. He was last of the notable series of Elizabethan and Jacobean playwrights; and his works, while frequently thin in plot and loosely constructed, are clever, suave and abounding in fancy. Besides 37 tragedies and comedies, he published a volume of poems. His best dramas are the tragedies The Traitor,' 'The Royal Master and The Cardinal,' and the comedies 'Hyde Park,' 'The Ball, The Gamester) and The Imposture. The best edition of his dramatic works is that by Gifford and Dyce (1833). Consult Wood, Athenæ Oxonienses,' (ed. Bliss; 1817); Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature) (1875); Forsythe, R. S., 'Relations of Shirley's Plays to the Elizabethan Drama (New York 1914); Nason, A. H., James Shirley, Dramatist: A Biographical and Critical Study) (New York 1915); Parlin, H. T., A Study in Shirley's Comedies of London Life' (University of Texas 1914).

SHIRLEY, William, American colonial governor: b. Preston, Sussex, 1693; d. Roxbury, Mass., 24 March 1771. He studied law and in 1731 came to America, settled in Boston, Mass., and there engaged in that profession. He was royal governor of Massachusetts in 1741-45, planned the successful expedition against Cape Breton in 1745, and in 1745-53 was in England, after which he returned to Massachusetts as governor. He made a treaty with the Eastern Indians in 1754, explored the Kennebec River, and erected several forts on its banks, and at the outbreak of the French War in 1755 was commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America. He planned the expedition of General Prideaux against Niagara and accompanied it as far as Oswego, but was superseded in his military command and in his governorship in 1756. He was later appointed governor of the Bahamas, a post he resigned in 1770, and

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then returned to Massachusetts, where he lived in retirement the remainder of his life. He wrote 'Electra,' a tragedy; 'Bertha, a masque; 'The Siege of Louisburg) (1745); Conduct of Gen. William Shirley Briefly Stated' (1758), etc. Consult 'Correspondence of William Shirley) (New York 1912).

SHIRLEY, a novel by Charlotte Brontë, published in 1849. The scene is laid in the Yorkshire country, with which the author had been acquainted from childhood. The heroine, Shirley, was drawn from her own sister Emily. The book is richer in portrayal of character than in striking incident.

SHIRREFF, shir'ef, Emily Anne Eliza, English pioneer educator of women: b. 3 Nov. 1814; d. London, 20 March 1897. She was a daughter of Rear-Admiral Shirreff and with her sister Maria - afterward Mrs. William Grey received an excellent education, especially in languages and history. The inadequacy of educational facilities for women impressed the sisters deeply and their first efforts to improve matters lay through the publication of several books of which they were joint authors. These include 'Letters from Spain and Barbary) (1835 or 1836); Passion and Principle, a novel (1841); Thoughts on SelfCulture, Addressed to Women' (1850). Miss Shirreff was a staunch supporter of the movement to establish Girton College, and was honorary mistress there in 1870, as well as being a member of the executive committee until her death. With her sister she founded the National Union for Improving the Education of Women of all Classes out of which in 1877 came the college for women now known as the Maria Grey Training College. She was an advocate of the Froebel system, concerning which she wrote several pamphlets. She was also author of Intellectual Education and its Influence on the Character and Happiness of Women' (1858).

SHISHAK, shi'shǎk, Egyptian king, the Sheshenk I of the monuments, and the first sovereign of the Bubastite or Libyan dynasty. Shishak I rose to the throne from being commander of the powerful Libyan mercenaries; to him Jeroboam fled for protection when he fell under the suspicion of Solomon (1 Kings xi, 40); and in the fifth year of Rehoboam he invaded Judah, whose fenced cities he took one after another until he arrived at Jerusalem which, according to the statements of Josephus, fell without a struggle. (Compare 2 Chron. xiii, 1-10). Shishak pillaged the temple and the king's palace, carrying off the treasures accumulated in the reigns of Solomon and David, and reducing Judah to the position of a tributary kingdom. He ascended the throne of Egypt about 980 B.C. and reigned at least 21 years. On the southern wall of the great temple of Karnak, in Upper Egypt, is a record of the conquests of Shishak and of the countries ruled by him. On this are four rows of prisoners. Each figure has his arms tied behind him, and a rope around his neck, and Shishak, a colossal figure, leads them by a string, meanwhile branishing a weapon. In the lists of his conquests during the expedition in which Judah was subjected to his rule we find the names of cities in both the kingdoms of

738

Israel and Judah and of several Arabian tribes to the south of Palestine. Among those of the cities which can be recognized in these lists are Rabboth, Taanach, Sunem, Rehob, Hapharaim Adoraim, Mahanaim, Gibeon, BethHoron, Kedemoth, Ajalon, Megiddo and Judah Maluk, "the royal city of Judah,” or Jerusalem. Shishak appears to have been one of the ablest and most powerful of the Egyptian monarchs. All Egypt was under his sway. Consult Müller, W. M., Egyptological Researches' (Washington 1906).

SHITTIM WOOD. See KITTIM.

SHIVAISM, the religion of the Shivaites, or worshippers of Shiva or Siva, an ancient Dravidian divinity of southern India. His proper name was Mahâdêwa, "greater god"; but the title Shiva, "the good," was more generally applied to him by his votaries. While Shiva is the most popular of the Hindu pantheon, his worship more widely obtains in the south than in the north, although his throne is the Himalayas, and he is a destroying god, yet sometimes restoring and fructifying in influence. Thus in the south he is widely honored under the symbol of the phallus or lingam. Although he is a Dravidian god, in the struggle between Brahmanism and Buddhism he was adopted into the Brahmanistic system and identified with the Vedic Rudra, god of storms. Consult Barnett, L. D., Antiquities of India' (London 1913); Hopkins, E. Ŵ., 'Religions of India' (Boston 1895); Macdonnell, A. A., Vedic Mythology) (Strassburg 1898).

SHIVELY, Benjamin Franklin, American lawyer and senator; b. Saint Joseph County, Ind., 20 March 1857; d. 14 March 1916. He was graduated at the University of Michigan in 1886, and engaged in law practice at South Bend, Ind. He served in Congress in 1884-85 and in 1887-93. He was elected to the United States Senate for the term 1909-15 but died before its expiration.

SHOA, shō'ä, Abyssinia, northeast Africa, an important southern province, before 1889 a separate kingdom, with ill-defined boundaries. It consists of a series of plateaus at 3,000 feet above sea-level, traversed by mountain chains, which, in the culminating point, Mount Metatite, near Ankobar, have a height of 10,700 feet. Its east portion, called Effat, has a less elevated and more generally sloping surface, which is highly cultivated, and yields good crops of grain, chiefly wheat and barley. Cotton also is extensively cultivated. The higher plateaus are devoted to pasture. Among indigenous trees is the Juniperus excelsa, which in the course of a century attains a height of 160 feet, with a diameter at the base of four to five feet. The exports of the province comprise grain and large quantities of a durable cotton cloth, and to these may be added, as articles of trade, coffee, gold-dust, ivory, gums and spices, ostrich feathers, hides, dye-woods, medicinal plants, etc. The present capital is Adis Abeba, but the chief town is Ankobar. Christianity was introduced as early as the 3d century, and is still professed by a large number of the inhabitants, though in a degenerate form. Pop. estimated at 2,500,000 of whom about 1,000,000 are Christians and the rest chiefly Mohammedans.

SHOALS, Isles of. See ISLES OF SHOALS.

war.

SHOCK, a sudden vital depression of the body usually due to sudden derangement of the functions of the nervous system, and generally accompanied by a dilatation of the blood-vessels of the surface of the body and a marked decrease in blood-pressure. Such a condition may be brought about by both physically or psychically acting causes. A blow, a fall, a hæmorrhage, an operation, sudden fright, an appalling sight, a heartrending cry, sudden financial loss or great and sudden bereavement are among the many causes constantly acting to bring about such a condition. The symptoms of shock vary greatly according to the type of cause and the individuality of the patient. Sometimes the symptoms begin at once; under other circumstances the results may be delayed for a long period. A very severe form of shock is spoken of as surgical shock. This usually results from serious operations which involve nervous structures, take much time, and large quantities of anesthetic. A condition closely resembling surgical shock may follow the severe hæmorrhage of placenta prævia, ectopic pregnancy, or other form of internal hæmorrhage. (See BLEEDING). Special types of shock develop from the violent action of heavy explosions in These affect the central nervous system and were extremely frequent in the Great War of 1914-18. The symptoms of shock are very characteristic. The face usually becomes blanched and pale, the body becomes cold and is covered with clammy perspiration, the hands and feet usually become icy, the brain seems to be in a whirl, and consciousness is lost or much clouded. The pulse is usually quickened; the arteries at the wrist are soft and easily compressed; the breathing is usually rapid and shallow, labored, and at times irregular. The eyes are often sunken and listless, and the temperature of the body is diminished one or two degrees. The most important single factor in pure shock of the type described is the sudden fall in blood-pressure. This is thought to be due to purely nervous causes, the most potent one of which is paralysis of the sympathetic nervous fibres. This causes sudden dilatation of the blood-vessels, loss of tone of the vesselwalls, with loss of blood-pressure; hence the symptoms, and oftentimes the resultant death. The action in the sympathetic nervous system is largely due to the implication of the suprarenal glands, and other glands of internal secretion. Sometimes the symptoms of shock are much less severe. There is temporary faintness, slight pallor and a feeling of nausea, and the attack passes off. Between this slight shock and the shock that results from the pugilist's "solar-plexus" blow, that may bring death, every variety of change may be noted. In severe accidents many patients, while not suffering from physical injury, are often prostrated and develop true railroad shock, or traumatic neurasthenia. (See NEURASTHENIA). Psychical shock may induce neurasthenia; it may be a potent cause of mental disease; or it may even cause death. The influence of shock upon pregnant women is of great importance. Shock in such circumstances may bring about miscarriage, or cause malformations of the fœtus. Mild cases of shock are recovered from without aid. A stage of reaction sets in, the patient becomes warmer, the blood-vessels