In 1873-85 she taught in Portland, Ore., spent the year 1885-86 in Europe, and in 1887-90 was superintendent of schools of Portland, Ore. In 1891 Miss Sabin became president of Downer College, Fox Lake, Wis., and since 1895 has been president of Milwaukee-Downer College. At the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 Miss Sabin was juror of the educational exhibit and from 1886 to 1892 was member of the National Council of Education.

SABIN, Joseph, American bibliophile: b. Braunston, Northamptonshire, England, 9 Dec. 1821; d. Brooklyn, N. Y., 5 June 1881. After apprenticeship to Charles Richards, bookseller of Oxford, he set up a bookshop of his own there, but in 1848 came to this country, where he conducted establishments for the sale of old and rare works in New York 1850-56, in Philadelphia 1856-60, and New York 1860-81. His bibliographical knowledge was wide, and he is said to have crossed the Atlantic not less than 25 times for the purchase of unique specimens. From 1869 he published for a number of years The American Bibliopolist. He also prepared several compilations, among them 13 volumes of an uncompleted 'Dictionary of Books relating to America.

SABINE, SIR Edward, English physicist: b. Dublin, Ireland, 14 Oct. 1788; d. Richmond, Surrey, 26 June 1883. He was educated at the military colleges of Marlow and Woolwich and in 1803 entered the army where he was commissioned 2d lieutenant of artillery. He served in the war with the United States in 181314 and accompanied Ross and Parry in their Arctic expedition in 1818 and that of Parry in 1819-20. While on these expeditions he engaged in researches in terrestrial magnetism and in 1821-25 conducted a series of voyages extending from the Arctic regions to the equator, gathering data concerning the magnetic needle, the figure of the earth and other points in meteorological and terrestrial physics. He was instrumental in the establishment of permanent magnetical and meteorological observatories, retaining directorship of those in the colonies for many years. In 1818 he was elected to the Royal Society, was its vice-president in 1850 and in 1861-71 acted as its president. He received rank as lieutenant-general in the army in 1859 and was retired with full rank as general in 1874. His works include Account of the Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth (1825); 'The Variability of the Intensity of Magnetism upon Many Parts of the Globe' (1838), etc.

An

SABINE, Lorenzo, American historian: b. New Lisbon, N. H., 28 Feb. 1803; d. Boston, Mass., 14 April 1877. He sat in the New Hampshire legislature for three successive terms, but removed to Massachusetts in 1849, and was a Whig member of Congress in 185253. He is best known for his important work on 'The American Loyalists, or Biographical Sketches of Adherents to the British Crown in the War of the Revolution' (1847). He also published Life of Preble' (1847); Reports on the Principal Fisheries of the American Seas (1853); Notes on Duels and Duelling. with a Preliminary Historical Essay) (1856),

etc.

SABINE, Wallace Clement, American physicist: b. 13 June 1868; d. 10 Jan. 1919. He

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was graduated at Ohio University in 1886 and at Harvard in 1888. He was, until he died, connected with the faculty at Harvard, was professor of physics there in 1905-14, and after 1914 Hollis professor of mathematics. He was agrégé professor at the University of Paris in 1916-17. Author of 'Architectural Acoustics' (1900).

SABINE, a river of the United States, which has its rise in the northeastern part of Texas, in Hunt County, flows southeast about 250 miles, then turns southward and forms the boundary between Texas and Louisiana, and enters the Gulf of Mexico through Sabine Lake and Sabine Pass. The mouth of the river is Sabine Pass, a narrow channel which is obstructed by a muddy bar. Considerable has been done to make this pass safe for navigation; jetty-building and dredging was begun as soon as the interior of Texas, near the Sabine River, was settled. Sabine Lake is an expansion of the river, but the Neches River also enters the lake. The Sabine River is about 500 miles long and is navigable in its lower course. See BOUNDARIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

SABINE, or SABINE PASS, Tex., town and port of Jefferson County, on Sabine Pass Harbor, between Sabine Lake and the Gulf of Mexico, 70 miles by water northeast of Galveston, on the Texas and New Orleans Railroad. The Pass has been improved by the Federal government at great expense, thus opening a water route for the regions reached by the Sabine and Neches rivers, exports from which include petroleum, lumber, grain, iron ore and sulphur. Extensive concrete wharves have been built by the oil and lumber companies, and the commerce of the port is increasing rapidly, being confined chiefly to exports. Exports, $50,923,702. Pop. 8,600.

SABINE CROSS ROADS, Battle of, and BANKS' RETREAT TO ALEXANDRIA. Three miles southeast of Mansfield, De Soto Parish, La., one of the main roads from Alexandria to Shreveport is crossed by a road from Red River to Sabine River. At this crossing was fought a battle which marked the culmination and failure of what is known as the Red River Expedition. On 23 Jan. 1864, General Banks, then at New Orleans, received a despatch from General Halleck, dated the 4th proposing an expedition, to consist of the forces of Banks, Steele and such as could be spared by Sherman, for the capture of Shreveport, La., on Red River, and the recovery of Texas, thus opening access to the cotton of that section and stimulating trade. Banks had, on a previous occasion, for sound reasons, objected to such a campaign, but now acquiesced and promised a cordial cooperation; but he set forth the difficulties in the way, and made suggestions to remove them, not one of which was regarded. Engrossed with duties concerning political affairs in Louisiana. which had specially been confided to him by the President, Banks could not immediately leave New Orleans, and he entrusted the arrangements of the expedition to Gen. W. B. Franklin, his second in command, who was to move from the Teche 5 March, reach Alexandria on the 17th, and co-operate with a strong fleet under command of Admiral Porter. Porter arrived at the mouth of Red River on 7 March, with

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a fleet of 15 ironclads and four light steamers, and there he was joined some days later by transports from Vicksburg, carrying four divisions of Sherman's army, under Gen. A. J. Smith, and the Marine brigade of Colonel Ellet. A part of the plan of campaign was that General Steele, with an army of 15,000 men, should move from Little Rock, Ark., directly on Shreveport; but Steele, after marching from Little Rock to Camden, was checked, fell back to Little Rock and took no further part in the campaign. (See JENKINS' FERRY, BATTLE OF). Smith's forces advanced, attacked and in conjunction with the navy, 14 March, captured Fort de Russv, up Red River, together with 283 prisoners, 10 guns, and many small arms, the Confederate covering force of 3,500 men, under General Walker, after burning two steamboats and a considerable quantity of cotton, retreating up the river. It was not until the 19th that Franklin, with very little opposition, which was brushed aside by his cavalry, reached Alexandria. Banks joined him on the 24th, but his entire column did not close up until the 26th. Meanwhile General Mower, with three brigades of Smith's division and a cavalry brigade of the 19th corps, marched from Alexandria on the 21st for Henderson's Hill, 25 westward, surprised the 2d Louisiana cavalry, and with slight loss captured 250 men, nearly as many horses, and four guns, with their caissons. Near Alexandria the fleet came to a series of rapids, and the water was so low that the ironclads could not run up them, but after a week's hard labor the lighter ones were carried over. The transports, which could not pass, returned to Vicksburg, and with them Ellet's 3,000 men. The withdrawal of the transports made it necessary to establish a base at Alexandria and to use a wagon-train to carry the supplies, while it was also necessary to leave a guard of nearly 4,000 men (under General Grover) to protect the place. General Franklin, with the main column, advanced on the road running west of and parallel to the river, to Natchitoches, about 80 miles above Alexandria. driving before him the Confederate cavalry, and reaching Natchitoches on 3 April, where he was joined by A. J. Smith's column, which, accompanied by Porter's fleet, had come to Grand Ecore, four miles from Natchitoches. Porter had a fleet of 13 gunboats and 30 transports.

miles

Banks' army, on the eve of march from Natchitoches for Shreveport, was composed of two divisions of the 13th corps, under Gen. T. E. G. Ransom; five brigades of the 16th corps, under Gen. A. J. Smith; Gen. W. H Emory's division, three brigades of the 19th corps; and Colonel Dickey's brigade of colored troops, under General Franklin; Gen. A. L. Lee's division of cavalry and mounted infantry, four brigades; and a small artillery reserve, under Captain Closson. These numbered 31 March 25,735 officers and men, with about 65 guns. Lee's cavalry force of 4,500 men had pushed out westward, 12 miles; on 2 April it ran across Confederate cavalry, drove it back eight miles, and then withdrew to wait for the general advance. This began on the morning of the 6th, led by Lee's cavalry, followed by the two small divisions of the 13th corps, under Ransom, and by Emory with a division of the 19th corps and Dickey's brigade

of colored troops. On the morning of the 7th A. J. Smith followed with Mower's division of the 16th corps. A division of the 17th corps, 1,730 strong, under Gen. T. Kilby Smith, remained with the transports, under instructions to conduct them to Loggy Bayou, opposite Springfield, about midway between Natchitoches and Shreveport, 110 miles by the river, above Grand Ecore, where he was to halt and communicate with the army at Sabine Cross Roads. 54 miles from Grand Ecore. Porter, Smith and the transports, with six gunboats carrying 17 guns, started on the 7th.

Lee's instructions from General Franklin were to attack the enemy wherever found, but not to bring on a general engagement. On the 7th he drove a brigade of General Green's beyond Pleasant Hill, and came upon a strong force under Green at Wilson's Farm. Lee attacked and after a hard engagement of two hours drove Green to Saint Patrice's Bayou, eight miles from Pleasant Hill. Here Lee bivouacked for the night, and sent back for infantry support. His loss had been 53 killed and wounded. Green's loss was greater, including about 100 prisoners. That night Franklin reached Pleasant Hill; A. J. Smith's division was still a day's march in rear of Franklin. At daybreak of the 8th Lee, having been reinforced by one of Landram's brigades of the 13th corps, dropped his wagon-train, and, moving forward, drove the Confederates from Saint Patrice's Bayou and gradually pushed them to a wood beyond a clearing at Sabine Cross Roads, and found himself in the immediate front of Gen. R. Tayor's army of 10,000 men. Taylor, whose forces had been much scattered, in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, had concentrated them, and near Mansfield had the three divisions of Generals Green, Walker and Mouton - 10,000 men. On the morning of the 8th he moved three miles from Mansfield to Sabine Cross Roads and formed line in the edge of a wood, commanding, on both sides of the road, a clearing about 1,200 yards long, and 800 wide, through the middle of which was a deen ravine. He knew that Banks' column was stretched out on a single road for more than 20 miles, and was sanguine of success in attacking the head of it. Lee threw out a strong skirmish-line and waited for Banks' main body to come up. At noon Ransom arrived with a brigade, and line was formed. Banks rode up a little past noon, and sent back repeated orders for Franklin to hurry forward. After heavy and continuous skirmishing, lasting until 4.30 P.M., Taylor threw his entire force of 10,000 men heavily upon the Union line; Mouton's division and two brigades of dismounted cavalry made an impetuous charge upon the Union right, in which Mouton was killed at the first onset, while Walker's division and a brigade on its right fell upon the centre and left of the line. For nearly an hour the men (not over 4,500) of Banks' command resisted this attack, and then were compelled to fall back to the woods in rear of the open space at the cross roads, with heavy loss, including three guns. Franklin had come up with Cameron's division of the 13th corps, and a new line was formed, to be immediately broken by heavy attacks on both flanks and front. The Confederates were gaining the rear, and the Union line was pressed back along the

narrow forest road filled with wagons and mules of the supply-train, stragglers, and campfollowers, which so blocked the way that an orderly retreat was impossible. Soon a panic set in, the cavalry train of 156 wagons was captured, Ransom's 10 guns were taken, along with 1,000 of his men; Franklin and Ransom were wounded, some of the best officers were struck down; and in spite of the heroic efforts of Banks and others to rally them, nearly the whole army broke into a disorderly retreat, which was checked only at Pleasant Grove, three miles from the field of battle. Here General Emory, with his division, had come up at 6 P.M., and formed line in the edge of a wood, on a ridge overlooking a small stream; and scarcely had his line been formed when the panic-stricken fugitives came rushing back through it to the rear. The Confederates were close on their heels, made an immediate assault upon Emory, and were met with a severe fire delivered at close quarters that instantly checked them. After an hour and a half of fierce battle, in which they made desperate efforts to turn Emory's right, the Confederates were everywhere repulsed with great loss, but held the shores of the stream. Banks' army, after having advanced to within two marches of Shreveport, had been saved from total destruction "by a triumph of valor and discipline on the part of a single division and of skill on the part of its intrepid commander." The action is known as the battle of Pleasant Grove. The Union loss at Sabine Cross Roads and Pleasant Grove was about 1,050 killed and wounded and nearly 1,800 missing; the Confederate loss, 1,500 killed and wounded.

Banks had been limited as to time in carrying out the objects of his campaign. General Sherman was calling for A. J. Smith's troops, and General Grant, who had set his heart on a movement by Banks from New Orleans on Mobile, had written him: "I had much rather that the Red River expedition had never been begun, than that you should be detained one day beyond the first day of May, in commencing the movement east of the Mississippi." The allotted time was fast expiring, Banks concluded to abandon his expedition. The night of the 8th he fell back 15 miles to Pleasant Hill, which was reached by Emory's division, that brought up the rear about 9 o'clock next morning. A. J. Smith, with a part of his command, had halted at Pleasant Hill, on the evening of the 8th, and with less than 13,000 men Banks formed a double line; the first, of the 19th corps, along a thickly wooded slope half a mile west of Pleasant Hill; the second, of A. J. Smith's command and the artillery, on a plateau in rear. The trains, preceded by Lee's cavalry and Dickey's brigade of colored troops, and followed by the remnants of Ransom's division, were put on the road to Grand Ecore. General Taylor, reinforced by the divisions of Generals Churchill and Parsons, had followed Banks very cautiously, and at noon his advance appeared and began skirmishing. Later artillery was brought up and opened fire, and a demonstration was made on the Union right. About 5 P.M. three Confederate divisions charged out of the woods upon the left flank of the Union line, which was steadily driven back up the hill to the cover of the second line.

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Here the Confederates were repulsed with great loss. Meanwhile the right of the Union line, though hard pressed, stood firm until, the left being driven back, it was nearly enveloped and gave ground, and the Confederates pressed on to an attack on A. J. Smith, who held the second line in reserve. After a short and sharp exchange of fire. Smith's and part of Emory's men made a charge and pushed back the Confederate line. All the reserves were now thrown into action, and the Confederates were routed, driven from the field and pursued until dark. Gen. E. Kirby Smith, the Confederate department commander, says: "Our troops attacked with vigor and at first with success, but, exposing their right flank, were finally repulsed and thrown into confusion. The Missouri and Arkansas troops, with a brigade of Walker's division, were broken and scattered. The enemy recovered cannon which we had captured the day before, and two of our pieces with the dead and wounded were left on the field. Our troops were completely paralyzed and disorganized by the repulse. Our repulse

at Pleasant Hill was so complete and our command was so disorganized that had Banks followed up his success vigorously he would have met but feeble opposition to his advance on Shreveport."

Banks had at Pleasant Hill 12,600 men, of whom 150 were killed, 844 wounded and 375 missing. Taylor had 14,300 engaged, of whom about 1,000 were killed and wounded, and nearly 500 missing.

Encouraged by his success at Pleasant Hill, Banks gave orders for a forward movement next morning on Shreveport, and preparations were being made for the march, when General Franklin and other officers dissuaded him from it, and it was decided to fall back to Grand Ecore and unite with the fleet. The retreat was resumed during the night and Grand Ecore reached on the 11th. E. Kirby Smith joined Taylor after the close of the battle of Pleasant Hill, and determined to move against General Steele in Arkansas. Taylor withdrew his infantry to Mansfield on the 10th and 11th, leaving the cavalry, under Green, and Polignac's infantry division of 2,000 men to watch and harass Banks. Upon his arrival at Grand Ecore, Banks intrenched, threw a pontoonbridge across the river, put part of his force on the other side and waited for the fleet to come down. Porter, with the gunboats and Kilby Smith, with the transports, had arrived at Loggy Bayou on the afternoon of the 10th, where, two hours later, they received news of Banks' misfortunes, and on the morning of the 11th received his orders to return to Grand Ecore. The fleet turned down stream, but it was not to reach Grand Ecore without opposition. On the evening of the 11th Green, who had been left at Pleasant Hill, started with 750 men and two batteries for Blair's Landing, and on the 12th, with about 500 men and three guns, attacked the fleet and transports as they were running down the river. A brisk fight followed, General Green was killed by a discharge of grape from one of the gunboats and his men were driven off, with small loss. The Union loss was 57 killed and wounded. By the 15th all the gunboats were back to Grand Ecore, and as fast as the vessels could pass the bar they made their way to Alexandria, one

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gunboat being lost. The fleet having passed down, Banks marched from Grand Ecore on the 22d for Alexandria, and that night bivouacked at Clouterville, 32 miles from Grand Ecore. The march was resumed on the 22d, and on the morning of the 23d, while marching along Cane River, a branch of the Red, the head of the column was checked at Monett's Ferry by General Bee, with four brigades of 2,000 men and four batteries. Bee's position was a strong one on a bluff commanding the crossing, and on the only practicable road to Alexandria, 35 miles distant. At the same time the Confederate cavalry under General Wharton and Polignac's infantry were harassing Banks' rear. General Birge, with his own brigade and Cameron's division of the 13th corps, in all about 5,000 men, crossed Cane River three miles above the ferry, and by a difficult flank march of several miles reached a hill, the occupation of which rendered Monett's Bluff untenable. Birge attacked at 2 P.M., after a contest of two hours carried the hill, and the Confederates retreated and left open the road to Alexandria. The Union loss was 150 to 200 killed and wounded. Banks resumed his march on the 24th, and without further serious opposition entered Alexandria on the 25th. Banks reported that in the 24 days intervening between the march of the army from Alexandria and its return there his own army had marched 400 miles. He had fought several battles, and been successful in all but one, and his losses were 289 killed, 1,541 wounded and 2,150 missing, an aggregate of 3,980. The difficulty of getting Porter's fleet over the shallow rapids near Alexandria detained Banks at that place until 13 May, when he continued his retreat. (See YELLOW BAYOU, ENGAGEMENT AT). Consult Official Records' (Vol. XXXIV) Taylor, 'Destruction and Reconstruction) The Century Company's 'Battles and Leaders of the Civil War' (Vol. IV).

E. A. CARMAN.

SABINE MOUNTAINS, Italy, a branch of the Apennines, near the border of ancient Latium, east of Rome, is a lofty group in the upper valley of the Aternus; the highest summit reaches an altitude of about 4,200 feet.

SABINE PASS, Engagement at. On 6 Aug. 1863 General Halleck informed General Banks, in command at New Orleans, that there were important reasons why the United States' flag should be raised at some point in Texas, with the least possible delay. Halleck's dispatch was by direction of the Secretary of War, and it was understood that the proposed movement was of diplomatic rather than a military character, and intended to prevent European complications. Banks was left to his own judgment how to conduct the campaign, but it was suggested that the most feasible route would be by the Red River to Shreveport. Banks, deeming the Red River route impracticable at that season of the year, fitted out an expedition to make a lodgment in Texas at Sabine City, on Sabine Pass, the outlet from Sabine Lake into the Gulf of Mexico, and the terminus of a railroad penetrating_eastern Texas, and making connection with Houston, the capital of the State. General Franklin was put in charge of the advance of the expedition of 5,000 men, and was instructed to land a

few miles below Sabine Pass, move upon the Confederate works commanding it, and, if practicable, to seize Beaumont, on the railroad to Houston. Four light-draft gunboats, under command of Lieutenant Crocker, formed part of the expedition, which sailed from New Orleans on 4 September. Franklin disregarded his instructions to land 10 or 12 miles below Sabine Pass, and on Crocker's representation that he could silence the Confederate works in the pass, he and Crocker arranged for the gunboats to make a direct attack upon the works, drive out the garrison, seize or drive away two Confederate gunboats reported on the river and then land the troops. From the army 150 sharpshooters were distributed on the four gunboats. Early in the forenoon of the eighth the gunboats and transports crossed the bar at Sabine Pass, and in the middle of the afternoon three of the gunboats opened fire upon the small fort, mounting eight heavy guns, and held by 44 officers and men. The fire was immediately returned, two of the gunboats were disabled and surrendered and were taken in tow by two small Confederate craft. It was all over in less than an hour. made no serious attempt to land his troops, but immediately returned to New Orleans, having lost two gunboats, with their 15 heavy guns, nearly 50 killed and wounded and over 200 prisoners, among them Lieutenant Crocker, of the navy. Not a Confederate was hurt. Consult Official Records' (Vol. XXVI).

Franklin

SABINES, sabinz (Lat. SABINI, sạ-bini), a people noted in the early history of Rome, whose territory they adjoined. The Sabines were engaged in agriculture and grazing, and from the simplicity of their lives and their physical prowess they obtained a reputation like that of the Spartans for severity of discipline and sturdiness of character. The narrow limits of the Sabine territory made emigration necessary, and probably in this way they came in contact with the growing power of Rome. They fought the Romans with great courage, but were subdued about 290 B.C., and admitted to Roman citizenship, but not permitted to vote in civic affairs. They became merged in the republic and subsequent empire, and were lost to view as a separate people.

SABINUS, Masurius, Roman jurist. He flourished during the reign of Tiberius, and was a pupil of Capito. He was the founder of the school of Sabiniani, and was the author of several works much used and commented upon by later jurists, the most important being 'Libri iii, Juris Civilis,' which is not now extant.

SABLE, one of the fur-bearing animals (Mustela zibellina), found in Siberia, Asiatic Russia and Kamchatka, or its American representative (M. americana) which differs so little that it is doubtfully named as a separate species. The average length of the sable is about 18 inches, excluding the tail, which is somewhat bushy. The body partakes of the form of the weasels generally, in that it is elongated and vermiform. The fur is smooth, glossy and may be pressed or smoothed in any direction, owing to the mode of attachment of the hairs to the skin. In color it is a rich deep brown, which near the head may exhibit white markings, and frequently assumes a gray tint about the neck. The fur is heaviest during winter, and the dan

gers experienced by the sable-hunters from sudden snow-storms obliterating the track, or from the inclement cold, can hardly be overestimated. Sables are for the most part captured in traps, but are cautious animals, and their pursuit is attended with much difficulty. They make their homes in dens or cavities in hollow trees, and produce from three to five young at a birth, the young being born in March or April; and their general habits are those of the marten and weasel, but they are more shy and retiring.

Skins of the Russian sable fetch prices in Liverpool ranging from 3 to 10 guineas. The darkest skins are considered to be the finest. About 2,000 skins annually find their way to England. Most of these furs are used in Russia, where about 25,000 are said to be annually collected. When manufactured for linings sable fur may fetch prices as high as 1,000 guineas. The corporation robes of the London aldermen are lined with this expensive material, and the tails of sables are used in the manufacture of artists' brushes. See FUR-BEARING ANIMALS; FUR-TRADE.

SABLE, Cape. See CAPE Sable.

SABLE ANTELOPE, one of the largest and most handsome of African antelopes (Hippotragus niger), of the same genus as the roan antelope, blaubok and others, and like them rapidly approaching extinction, as civilization more and more encroaches upon the plains of southern and eastern Africa. Its coat is a deep glossy black, markings upon the face, the buttock and the under parts being white, The great-ringed horns sweep back from the forehead in a sabre-like curve, and the neck is adorned with a mane. These antelopes went about, in old times, in herds, and were prizes for the sportsmen, while their flesh was excellent to eat. Extensive descriptions may be found in the writings of Gordon-Cummings, Anderson, Baker, Selous, Bryden and other African sportsmen-travelers.

SABLE ISLAND, a low-lying island in the Atlantic, in lat. 44° N. and long. 60° W., 85 miles east of Nova Scotia. It is a chain of sand dunes enclosing a lagoon, and is such a menace to navigation that the government of Canada maintains two lighthouses there. It was formerly 40 miles long and is now but 20, gradually sinking. Upon its sandy ridges grow cranberries and wild grass, and attempts are being made to raise pines and other hardy evergreens. There are sandbanks in the vicinity. The only inhabitants are the lighthouse and lifeboat men attached to the establishment for the relief of shipwrecked persons. The island is known for its breed of hardy wild ponies.

SABOTAGE, så-bo-tázh, a method used by labor revolutionists to force employers to accede to demands made on them. It consists in a wilful obstruction and interference with the normal processes of industry. It aims at inconveniencing and tying up of production, but stops short of actual destruction or of endangering human life directly. The practices are varied. The original act of sabotage is said to have been the slipping of the wooden shoe or "sabot" of a workman into a loom, in the early days of the introduction of machinery, to impede production. Some of the more common forms are wasting of materials; telling

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the exact truth to customers; obeying orders punctiliously, especially on railroads; using of bad materials so as to impair the standing of the employer; placing sand or emery in wheel bearings; loosening screws and nuts; cutting belts; sitting idle at machines; mislaying tools, and any number of petty devices for hindering and delaying production. These methods were found to be more subtly effective by the syndicalists, and have been endorsed also by the I. W. W. (q.v.). Sabotage is conducted secretly, so that the blame cannot be fixed and the criminal law is thus avoided. Many prominent labor leaders consider it a slavish, wasteful and sterile instrument and prefer the strike as a form of direct action. Consult Brooks, J. G., ( American Syndicalism: the I. W. W. (Chap. XII, New York 1913).

SABOTS, sa-bōz', wooden shoes largely worn by the peasantry of France, Belgium, Holland and some other parts of Europe. They are especially useful in wet weather, and in moist places generally, being well adapted to preserve the feet from damp. Great numbers of sabots have been exported by France to Belgium. In some parts of England, as in Lancashire, shoes with thick wooden soles, but with leather vamps or "uppers," are worn by most of the artisan class. See BOOTS AND SHOES.

SABRE-TOOTHED TIGERS, extinct cats of the family Macharodontide (or Nimravida), a group whose remains occur as fossils from the Eocene up to the Pleistocene. They differ from ordinary cats (Felida) in several anatomical features, having some peculiarities which ally them to the bears, and others recalling existing viverroids, as the foussa (Cryptoprocta). They are remarkable for the character of the dentition, which in the earlier genera comes near showing the complete number of teeth, but displays a steady tendency as the family history is followed toward the reduced number possessed by existing cats. At the same time the dentition is often distinguished by the huge size of the upper canines, which in some cases were five or six times as long as the neighboring teeth, and have been justly called "sabre-teeth." These tushes reached their highest development in the genus Machæodus, whose species were of very wide distribution, occurring in both North and South America and in Europe. These carnivores were of various sizes, up to dimensions equal to those of modern tigers, and so little different in general from true cats that Cope places them within the Felide. It began in the Eocene and continued down almost or quite to the Glacial Period, when the type seems to have become extinct because the great canines had overgrown their usefulness and become a hindrance instead of a help in getting a living. They finally became so large that the animal could not open its mouth wide enough to make use of them in biting, and the space between them would admit none but a very small piece of meat to enter, even if a large piece could be torn away. "Even when the mouth opens so far as to allow the mandible to pass behind the apices of the canines," remarks Cope, "there would appear to be some risk of the latter being caught on the point of one or the other canine, and forced to remain open, caus