on which the eye might rest with pious delight. When Christian art originated we cannot precisely say; it is usually dated from the time of Constantine. Nevertheless-as Lord Lindsay remarks, in his Sketches of the History of Christian Art (Lond. 1847) it would be more correct to say that it then first emerged above ground; its earliest efforts must be sought for in the catacombs.' In these subterranean excavations, forming a maze of unknown extent and labyrinthine intricacy, to which the Roman Christians had recourse in the days of persecution, are to be found the first traces of Christian sculpture and painting. The sarcophagi of the martyrs and confessors, of the heroes and heroines, of the bishops, and, in general, of those of higher mark and renown, were painted over with the symbols and devices of Christianity. The parables were the chief source from which

Supposed earliest Picture of Christ : From a Ceiling in the Catacombs of St Calixtus at Rome.

C.

these sepulchral artists drew their symbols. is painted as the good shepherd in the midst of his flock, or, with pastoral pipe,' seeking the lost sheep, or returning with it on his shoulders. Sometimes he figures as an ideal youth in the bloom of his years, sometimes as a bearded man in the prime of life, sometimes as Orpheus surrounded by wild beasts enrapt by the melody of his lyre. Such pictures, however, were only symbolical, and did not satisfy the religious craving for a portrait. The age of Constantine marks the transition from the symbolical to the pseudo-historical picture. We now find C. represented in the midst of his disciples, or in the act of performing a miracle; but it is not till about the close of the 4th c. that we actually encounter that type of countenance which, with certain modifications, continued to rule the conceptions of artists during the whole of the middle ages. To vindicate this type, myths, at a later period, sprang into existence; and we read of a portrait of C. possessed by King Abgarus of Edessa, and imprinted on a handkerchief, and of another miraculously obtained by St Veronica at the Crucifixion; but there is as little foundation for these legends as for that which attributes to the evangelist Luke such a picture. The Emperor Alexander Severus (230 A.D.) is said to have possessed in his palace an image of Christ. An antique mosaic, probably of the 3d c., which exists in the Museo Christiano of the Vatican-where are to be found

also some specimens of the frescoes of the catacombs gives an idea of the manner in which the heathen artists expressed their notion of Christ. He is depicted as a bearded philosopher in profile. A letter which Lentulus, the predecessor of Pilate, is declared to have written to the Roman senate, but which is evidently apocryphal, attributes to C. a figure and countenance of manly beauty. Towards the middle of the 8th c., John of Damascus gives a description which he pretends to have gathered from more ancient authors. According to him, C. was tall, had beautiful eyes, but the eyebrows meeting; a regular nose, flowing locks, a black beard, and a sandy or straw-coloured complexion, like his mother. Among the most ancient representations of C. which profess to be portraits, are the two paintings in the Calixtine and Pontine catacombs near Rome, and which are given in Arighi's Roma Subterranea Nova. The Saviour is there represented with an oval visage, a straight nose, arched eyebrows, and high forehead. The expression is earnest and mild; the hair is parted on the forehead, and falls over the shoulders in waving locks; the beard is short and scattered. These two busts agree with the apocryphal letter of Lentulus, and the artist or artists who executed them, may possibly have employed it as a model. The majority of the Byzantine and Italian painters, down to the age of Michael Angelo and Raphael, adhered to this type.

CHRIST or CRIS CROSS ROW, the alphabet arranged in the form of a cross, for the use of children; and so printed, in old 'horn' books, or primers. The letter A was at the top, and Z at the foot of the cross.

CHRISTCHURCH, a parliamentary and municipal borough and seaport on the English Channel, in Hampshire, at the head of the estuary formed by the Avon and Stour, 24 m. S.W. of Southampton. It has manufactures of fusee chains for clocks and watches, and of hosiery. It has also a salmon-fishery. The priory church, one of the most interesting and magnificent of English ecclesiastical structures, dates from the reign of William Rufus, and was restored in 1861. The borough comprises two favourite watering-places, Mudeford and Bournemouth. There are traces here of a Roman temple to Mars. Pop. (1871) 15,415; (1881) 28,537. It returns one member to parliament.-C. Bay has a double tide every 12 hours.

CHRISTCHURCH, capital of the province of Canterbury, in New Zealand, situated on the river Avon, about 8 miles from the sea. Its port is Littleton, with which it is connected by a railway, and it is in railway communication with the north and south. It is the centre of a great grazing district, and has also flourishing manufactories. There is a large export trade, chiefly in timber and wool. The city possesses numerous fine public buildings, churches, theatre, &c. Pop. (1881) 15,214; with Sydenham and the suburbs, 30,719.

CHRIST CHURCH, THE CATHEDRAL OF, (Oxford). This great society has had three distinct foundations. In 1526, Cardinal Wolsey obtained from Clement VII. a bull for the suppression of 22 monasteries, the site of one of which he selected as the site of a new college, to be called Cardinal College, and which he intended to endow on a scale of magnificence beyond that of any other foundation in Oxford. On the fall of Wolsey in 1529, the whole establishment came into the hands of King Henry VIII. In 1532, that prince refounded it under the name of King Henry VIII.'s College, and in 1546, he once more re-established the college, under the name of Christ-Church Cathedral in Oxford, or the Foundation of King Henry VIII., with a dean

and 8 canons, 60 students, 40 school-boys, clerks, choristers,' &c. This foundation is now subsisting, though it has undergone considerable modifications. To none of the canonries were any duties assigned by King Henry VIII. From time to time, how ever, the canonries have been annexed to various university professorships, more particularly one to the professorship of divinity, by King James I.; one to the professorship of Hebrew, by King Charles I.; and one to the professorships of ecclesiastical history and pastoral theology respectively, by Queen Victoria.

Several changes were introduced by the commissioners appointed under 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81. There is now only one sinecure-enjoying canon. When he is off the list, no one may hold a canonry save a professor, the archdeacon, or the sub-dean. The studentships are now 80 in number, and are, as before, divided into junior and senior studentships, differing considerably as to emolument. All these are now open, the old system of appointment by nomination having been abolished. About three junior students are elected every year in Lent term, one in every three for excellence in mathematics or physical science; and besides these, three are sent up yearly from Westminster. The senior studentships are also open, with the usual limitation of independent income. Of these, however, only a third can be held by laymen. The studentships were very poor; but an improvement in this respect has been included among the recent changes. Some valuable exhibitions, however, and 90 benefices, are in the gift of the society. In 1881, there were about 1200 names on the college books. No statutes were given to C., owing to the death of the king having taken place shortly after the final foundation of the college. It was, in consequence, entirely governed by the orders of the dean and chapter, to the total exclusion of the tutors. To this separation of the governing from the teaching body, as well as to the small value of the studentships, may be ascribed, in great measure, the inconsiderable degree of success in the schools, which, for many years past, brought no small discredit on this magnificent society.

CHRISTENING, a term often used as equivalent to Baptism (q. v.). It is disliked by some, and of course liked by others, as favouring the doctrine of baptismal regeneration; being, indeed, according to its derivation, expressive of the notion that a person is made a Christian in baptism. But, like many other terms, it is frequently employed without reference to its origin, and without any intention of conveying the opinion which it might be strictly held to imply.

following, C. found himself forced to flee for refuge to the Netherlands, and his uncle Fredrick I. (q. v.), the introducer of the Reformation into Denmark, elected king in his place. Encouraged, however, by the Catholic party in the Netherlands, and assisted by Charles V., C. landed successfully in Norway in 1531; but at the battle of Aggerhuus in 1532, he was totally defeated, and made prisoner in the castle at Sonderburg, from which he was liberated after twelve years of confinement. He died 28th January 1559.

CHRISTIAN IV., king of Denmark and Norway, and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, born in Zealand, 12th April 1577, and elected successor to the throne in 1580. He assumed the sceptre in 1593. From 1610 he carried on a successful war, known as the Kalmarian war, against Charles IX. of Sweden, and his successor, Gustavus Adolphus, which ended in an advantageous peace in 1613. As leader of the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, C. was not successful. His labours for the improvement of his country, in which he was indefatigable, were, however, most beneficial. He strengthened its maritime power; extended its commerce as far as the East Indies, where he obtained the first possessions; and by restrictions upon the Hanse towns, greatly increased the inland trade of the country. His legislative and financial reforms, together with his love and patronage of the arts and sciences, gained for him the esteem of his people, especially of the learned. He died in 1648.

Fredrick V. and Louisa of England, born 29th CHRISTIAN VII., king of Denmark, son of January 1749. He succeeded to the throne of his father 14th January 1766, and in the same year married Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. of England. The dissipations of his early life had enfeebled his energies, and rendered him unfit for government. The management of the state was, in Bernstorff, who had possessed the entire confidence consequence, seized by his ministers, with Count of the king's father, at their head. Bernstorff, however, was soon forced to retreat before Struensee (q. v.), who exercised unbounded influence over the king and his imprudent young queen. But innovations of a despotic tendency, and insults offered to the national feeling, soon drew upon this minister the hatred of the nation. The queen-dowager seeing this, made it an occasion for satisfying her ambitious nature, by attaching herself to the malcontents; and in 1772 she succeeded, with the assistance of her son, Fredrick (b. 1754, d. 1805), in persuading the vacillating king to draw up an order of arrest for Struensee and the young queen. Bernstorff was recalled from Hamburg. The king, who was now incapacitated by mental disease, governed only nominally. In 1784, his son, Fredrick VI. (q. v.), with the queen-mother. C. died 13th March 1808. came to the head of the government, as joint regent

CHRISTIAN BURIAL. See BURIAL and FELO DE SE

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR

PROMOTING, One of the great religious associations connected with the Church of England, and the oldest of them all. It was founded in 1698, although it did not receive its present name till 1701; and had for its object: 1. To promote and encourage the erecting of charity schools in all parts of England and Wales. 2. To disperse, both at home and abroad, Bibles and tracts of religion; and, in general, to advance the honour of God, and the good of mankind, by promoting Christian knowledge, both at home and in other parts of the world, by the best methods that should offer.' These objects it has never ceased to pursue, chiefly directing its efforts to the British dominions; partaking at once of the nature of an educational association, a Missionary Society, a Bible Society, and a Religious Tract Society; and notwithstanding the operations of other great societies in these several departments of Christian benevolence, its revenue amounts to about £100,000 a year. The profit on the bookselling department alone in 1880-81 was over £6000. The Protestant missionaries who laboured in the south of India in last century, were supported chiefly by this society, which has also established many Christian schools.

CHRISTIAN NAME. See NAME.

CHRISTIA'NIA, capital of Norway, is situated in the province of Aggerhuus, in a beautiful open valley on the northern side of the Christiania Fiord. Pop. (1885) 128,301. C. is the seat of the Norwegian government, the superior courts, and the Storthing. Besides the suburbs of Pipervigen, Hammarsborg, Vaterland, and Groenland, the town consists of C. properly so called (which was laid out by Christian ÎV. in 1614, in the form of a regular parallelogram of 1000 paces in length and breadth); the Old Town or Opslo, where the bishop resides; and the citadel Aggerhuus, from which the broad straight streets of the town can be fired upon. The most important public buildings are the royal palace, the bank and exchange, the house of representatives or Storthing, the governor's palace, and the cathedral. To these may be added the university, the only one in Norway, which was opened in 1813, and possesses a staff of 41 ordinary, and 6 extraordinary professors. About 800 students attend it annually. This institution contains, besides various scientific collections, a library of about 150,000 books, a botanical garden, and an observatory (in 59° 54′ 42′′ N. lat., and 10° 50′ E. long.). The latter was opened in 1833. C. has also some good schools and learned societies, of which the Society for Northern Antiquities' is

CHRISTIANITY. It is proposed in the present article to give a very brief outline of the system of the Christian religion, and of the evidences by which its truth is established. The principal parts, both of the system and evidences of C., will be found noticed under separate heads.

C. comes to us with a claim to be received as of divine origin. It is no product of the human mind, but has for its author the Being whom it sets before us as the object of worship. It is consequently altogether exclusive; it claims to be deemed the only true religion-the truth'-and admits of no compromise or alliance with any other system. of the Jews and of the patriarchs; it is the same C. cannot be viewed as distinct from the religion has been a change of dispensation only. religion accommodated to new circumstances; there In studycompelled continually to revert from the New Testaing either the system or the evidences of C., we are ment to the Old, and must in some measure trace the history of the true or revealed religion through the previous and preparatory dispensations.

The whole system of C. may be regarded as having its foundation in the doctrine of the Existence of one God. See GOD. Next to this may be placed the doctrine of the Fall (q. v.) of Man. Man is represented as involved in misery individual of the human race as incapacitated for by sin (q. v.)-original and actual and every the service and fellowship of God, obnoxious to the displeasure of God, and liable to punishment in

a future and eternal state of being. See PUNISH. doctrine of the ATONEMENT (q. v.) as next claiming And here we may regard the MENT, FUTURE. our attention-a doctrine taught in all the sacrifices (see SACRIFICE) of the patriarchal and Jewish dispensations, as well as by the words of inspired teachers. Man being utterly incapable of effecting his own deliverance from sin and misery, God sent his Son to save sinners, to deliver them from hell, to make them holy, and partakers of the eternal joy and glory of heaven.

By those who regard Christ as a mere creature, atonement or reconciliation with God is made to depend on the repentance of man as its immediate cause; whilst the life and death of Christ are represented as merely an example to us of obedience, virtue, and piety in the most trying circumstances; the doctrines of a propitiatory sacrifice, a substitu. tionary obedience, and an imputed righteousness, with all that form part of the same system, falling completely and even necessarily to the ground These doctrines, however, are all consistently main. tained in connection with the doctrine of the Trinity and the generally received doctrine as to the person of Christ. See CHRIST and TRINITY. The very incarnation (q. v.) of the Son of God is regarded as a glorious display of the divine condescension, and a wonderful exaltation of human nature: whilst a personal enjoyment of the highest dignity and bliss of which humanity is capable in the favour and fellowship of God for ever, is to be attained by faith in Jesus Christ. See FAITH and JUSTIFICATION.

The indissoluble connection between faith and

out with happy effect in the Hora Paulina of Paley, and in other works. The character of our Saviour supplies an argument of great power: the impossibility of the invention of such a character, and of the history in which it is exhibited, by any effort of human genius, is also urged as corroborative; and the inconsistency of the morality displayed, with the supposition of imposture, has been dwelt upon with the same view. The excellency, both of the doctrinal and moral part of the system of C., its elevating and purifying tendency, the agreement of its doctrine with the facts of man's sinfulness and misery, and the suitable provision which it makes for his most deeply felt wants, are principal branches of the internal evidence of its truth. The effects of C., where it has prevailed, supply a confirmatory argument in its favour, which has formed the subject of works of great learning and interest.

CHRISTIANSAND, the principal town of the province or stift of that name in Norway, is situated at the mouth of the Torridalself, in the bay of Christiansand. Pop. (1875) 12,137. C. is the residence of a bishop and high-bailiff or stift-amtmand, and possesses a branch of the Norwegian Bank, a gymnasium, and several charitable foundations. The manufactures are leather, tobacco, cotton, &c. Shipbuilding forms also a considerable branch of its industry. The town, which was built in 1641 by Christian IV., has an excellent harbour, divided into two parts by the island of Oddern. A destructive fire took place here in 1880. C. exports wood, lobsters, and salmon in large quantities. The town and harbour are protected by several fortifications. To the west of C. lies the harbour of NyHollesund.

CHRISTIANSFELD, a settlement of Moravian brothers, in the northern part of Schleswig, was founded in 1772. It consists of 64 houses and about 700 inhabitants. The houses, which are well built, and cheerful in appearance, are arranged in two parallel streets, with the church upon a green plot in the middle. The settlement is represented by the inspectors or chiefs appointed by the directors of the fraternity, and the representatives elected by the members of the sect. The manufactures are linen, soap, cotton, leather, &c.

CHRISTIANSTAD, the strongly fortified capital of a province of the same name in the south of Sweden. It is situated on the Helge, about 9 miles from the Baltic, and 265 south-west of Stockholm. C. is the residence of a governor, and the seat of a court of justice. It is a beautifully built town, and possesses an arsenal, a school, a magnificent church, and a senate-house. Pop. (1880) 9203, employed chiefly in the manufacture of woollen goods, leather, gloves, &c. There is also some trade in wood, pitch, potash, &c. The town, which was founded by Christian IV., has suffered many sieges. The province of Christianstad has an area of 2400 miles; pop. (1880) 230,619.

CHRISTIANSTED, the chief town of the Danish island of St Croix, in the West Indies. It stands on the north-east coast of the island, and has an excellent harbour, which is defended by a fort and a battery. Here resides the governor-general of the Danish West Indies. The number of its inhabitants

is 5700.

CHRISTI'NA, queen of Sweden, only child of the great Gustavus Adolphus, was born December 1626, and succeeded her father in 1632, when only six years old. Distinguished equally by beauty and the possession of a lively imagination, a good memory, and uncommon intelligence, she received the education rather of a man than of a woman;

In

and to this may in part be attributed the many eccentricities of her life. During her minority, the kingdom was governed by the five highest officers of the state, the principal being Chancellor Oxenstiern. In 1644, she assumed the reins of power, and, in 1650, was crowned with the title of king. She had previously declared her cousin, Charles Gustavus, her successor. For four years thereafter, she ruled the kingdom with vigour, and was remarkable for her patronage of learned and scientific men. 1654, however, at the age of 28, weary of the personal restraint which royalty imposed on her, she abdicated in favour of her cousin, reserving to herself sufficient revenues, entire independence, and supreme authority over her suite and household. Leaving Sweden, she proceeded to Brussels, where she embraced the Roman Catholic religion. She afterwards went to Rome, which she entered on horseback, in the costume of an Amazon, with great pomp, Confirmed by Pope Alexander VII., she adopted the surname of Alessandra. In 1656, she visited Paris; and the following year, on a second residence there, she caused her grand equerry, Monaldeschi, who had enjoyed her entire confidence, to be executed in her own household for treason. In 1658 she returned to Rome, and, in 1660, the death of the king, her cousin, caused her to hasten to Sweden; but, failing in her attempt to be re-instated on the throne, she again left the country. In 1666, she aspired to the crown of Poland, but was unnoticed by the Poles. The remainder of her life was spent at Rome in artistic and scientific pursuits. Besides founding an academy, she collected valuable MSS., medals, and paintings, and died April 19, 1689. Much of her conduct favours the idea that at times she was scarcely sane.

CHRISTINA, queen of Spain. See MARIA

CHRISTINA.

CHRI'STISON, SIR ROBERT, D.C.L., an eminent physician, son of Álexander Christison, Professor of Humanity in the university of Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh, July 18, 1797; was educated at the High School of his native place, and, in 1811, became a student at the university there. After graduating in 1819, he proceeded to London and Paris; and, in the French capital, studied toxicology under the celebrated Orfila, a department of medical science in which in Britain his name has become eminent. Commencing the practice of medicine at Edinburgh, he was, in 1822, appointed Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the university of that city, and, in 1832, was promoted to the chair of Materia Medica. Besides contributing papers on various subjects to medical journals, C. is author of a Treatise on Poisons, published in 1829, recognised as a standard work on the subject; Biographical Sketch of Edward Turner, M.D., 1837, being an address delivered before the Harveian Society of Edinburgh; a treatise On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, 1839; and The Dispensatory, a Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain, 1842. Twice President of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, and Ordinary Physician to the Queen in Scotland, in 1871 he was created a baronet. In 1877 Sir Robert retired from professorial and other public work. He died Jan. 27, 1882.

CHRISTMAS, the day on which the nativity of the Saviour is observed. The institution of this festival is attributed by the spurious Decretals to Telesphorus, who flourished in the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161 A. D.), but the first certain traces of it are found about the time of the Emperor Commodus (180-192 A. D.). In the reign of Diocletian (284-305 A. D.), while that