CHRONOMETER-CHRYSELEPHANTINE.

CHRONOMETER, or time-measurer, is the name given principally to such time-keepers as are used for determining the longitude at sea. The mechanism is essentially the same as that of a common watch; only the size is generally greater, and additional precautions are taken to secure regularity under changes of temperature and other deranging influences. See WATCH, HOROLOGY.

CHRONOSCOPE, an instrument contrived by Sir Charles Wheatstone to measure the duration of certain short-lived luminous phenomena, such as the electric spark, of which the eye itself can be no judge, owing to the persistence of impressions of light on the eye after the cause of sensation has ceased. The phenomenon is observed by reflection in a mirror, in such rapid motion that the image of the luminous object would appear to describe a circle, supposing the luminosity to endure long enough. Should the phenomenon be instantaneous, the image will appear as a mere point; should it last for an appreciable time, the image will form an arc, greater or less, of the circle. The electric spark is found by this test to have no duration.

round when touched, or when the stalk or leaf to which they are suspended is touched; and in general, they give signs of life, when disturbed, by violent contortions of the abdominal part. See INSECTS; PUPA; LEPIDOPTERA; BUTTERFLY, HAWK-MOTH, MOTH, and SILKWORM.

CHRYSANTHEMUM (Gr. gold-flower), a genus of plants of the natural order Composita, sub-order Corymbiferce; having a hemispherical or nearly flat involucre, with imbricated scales, which are membranous at the margin, a naked receptacle, the florets of the disk tubular and hermaphrodite, those of the ray strap-shaped and female, the fruit destitute of pappus. The species of this genus are annuals, perennials, or shrubby; and all have leafy stems. They are natives chiefly of the temperate parts of the old world. C. leucanthemum, the OxEYE, or Ox-EYE DAISY, is abundant in fields, meadows, and grassy CHRU'DIM, a town of Bohemia, beautifully places of woods, in most situated on a small river, about 62 miles south-east parts of Europe. It has of Prague. It is walled, has a noble collegiate large flowers, with white church, a high school and Capuchin convent, manu-ray and yellow disk. It factures of cloth, and very important horse-markets. is often a troublesome Pop. (1880) 11,886.

CHRY'SALIS, or CHRY'SALID, a name originally Greek, and strictly belonging to those pupa of butterflies which are adorned with golden spots, but extended to the pupa of lepidopterous insects generally, and even of other orders of insects. The chrysalids of lepidopterous insects are enclosed in a somewhat horny membranous case; sometimes very angular, sometimes nearly round; generally pointed at the abdominal end, sometimes at both ends; and before the caterpillar undergoes its transformation into this state, it often spins for itself a silken

Chrysalids:

d

a, Orange-tip Butterfly; b, Black-veined White Butterfly; e, Swallow-tailed Butterfly; d, Purple Emperor; e, Silver

washed Fritillary; f, Duke of Burgundy Fritillary. cocoon, with which earth and other foreign substances are sometimes mixed, so as to increase its size, and within which the chrysalid is concealed. Chrysalids are often suspended by cords, and generally remain nearly at rest; some have the power of burying themselves in the earth; others are bound by a single silken thread which passes round their middle (see cut); some twirl themselves

weed

among hay and in nial, and having a creeppastures; being perening brittle root-stock, it is not easily extirpated. It is common in Britain, which has only one other native species, C. segetum, CORN MARIGOLD, a frequent weed in cornfields -although rare in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh-an annual, with large deep yellow flowers. It is dealt with like annual weeds in general,

Chrysanthemum.

by pulling it when young.-C. carinatum, an annual species with white ray and dark-red disk, the scales of the involucre keeled, a native of Barbary, is frequently cultivated in green-houses orwhere the climate permits-in flower-gardens. The favourite species of the gardener is, however, C. Indicum, the CHINESE or INDIAN C., a native of China, Cochin-China, and Japan; which has long been cultivated in its native countries as an ornamental plant, and of which there are many varieties. Its colours are also very various-red, lilac, rosecolour, white, yellow, orange, or two colours combined. It flowers in autumn and winter. It is easy of cultivation, succeeds best in a light rich soil, is easily propagated by cuttings, suckers, or parting the roots, but requires the green-house in Britain. It was introduced in 1789. It is reckoned among florists' flowers.

CHRYSELEPHA'NTINE (Gr.; from chrysos, gold, and elephas, ivory), the art of making images of gold and ivory, was extensively practised amongst the Greeks. Winckelmann has calculated that about 100 statues of this kind are mentioned by the ancients. The colossal works executed by Phidias at Athens, in the time of Pericles, are the most famous of this class, the greatest being the Pallas of the Parthenon. It was 26 cubits high, and represented the goddess in armour, covered with a long robe. The famous Olympian Jupiter of Phidias, executed in the same materials, was also a world-wide wonder. The combination of gold

CHRYSIPPUS-CHRYSOPRASE.

and ivory was chiefly used in temple statues; and though the execution of the more famous works of this class belongs to an advanced period of art, the use of various materials in the same statue was very ancient, and probably borrowed from the custom of adorning the wooden images of the earliest time with the precious metals. Sometimes, too, the head, the arms and hands, and the feet were of marble, whilst the rest was of wood, covered with thin plates of gold. These were called Acrolites (akrolithoi). See SCULPTURE.

CHRYSIPPUS, an eminent Stoic philosopher, was born about 280 B. C., at Soli in Cilicia. He came to Athens when still a youth, and eagerly addicted himself to philosophical pursuits. His principal master was Cleanthes, although he is said to have also studied under the academic teachers, Arcesilaus and Lacydes, and learned from them what were the objections urged by sceptics against the doctrines of the Stoics. He had the reputation of being the keenest disputant of his age, and was happily described as 'the knife for the academic knots." In fact, his logic was held to be so convincing, that people were wont to say: If the gods make use of dialectic, it can only be that of Chrysippus. It is also related of him, that he told Cleanthes he merely wanted to know the principles of his system, as he intended to find arguments for them himself; and this story appears to indicate his true position in philosophy. He was not the creator of a new system, but the expounder of an old. C.'s industry was very great. He seldom wrote less than 500 lines a day, and is said to have composed more than 700 works. Many of these, however, were compilations, and were not characterised by great beauty of style. Only a variety of frag: ments remain, edited by Petersen in 1827. For C. and the stoics, see Zeller's great work on the history of Greek philosophy.

opalescent play of light. Lapidaries sometimes call it oriental or opalescent chrysolite. It is of a green colour, inclining to yellow, semi-transparent, or almost transparent, and has double refraction. It occurs crystallised in six-sided prisms; often in macles, or twin crystals. It is found in granite, in sandstone, and in alluvial soil; in Ceylon, Pegu, Siberia, Brazil, and Connecticut. It is composed of alumina, glucina, and a little protoxide of iron; the alumina being about 80 per cent. of the whole.

CHRYSOCO'LLA, or COPPER-GREEN (Gr. gold-glue), an ore of copper, found in Cornwall and in many parts of the world, but particularly in Wisconsin and Missouri, where it is so abundant as to be worked for copper. As a pigment, it was much used by the ancients.

CHRY'SOLITE (Gr. golden-stone), a mineral composed of silica, magnesia, and protoxide of iron; of a fine green colour, with vitreous lustre; transparent, and having double refraction; in hardness, about equal to quartz; and with conchoidal frac ture. It often crystallises in four-sided or six-sided prisms, variously modified. Very fine specimens are brought from Egypt and from some parts of the east, also from Brazil. C. is used by jewellers as an ornamental stone, but is not highly valued. Olivine, which occurs generally massive, in grains and roundish pieces, and is frequent in volcanio countries, and found in the igneous rocks of some parts of Scotland-as on Arthur's Seat-is regarded as a coarse variety of chrysolite.-The Chrysoberyl (q. v.) is sometimes called C. by jewellers.

CHRYSOLO'RAS, MANUEL, a learned Greek of Constantinople, was born in the middle of the 14th century. He is regarded as the first who transplanted Greek literature into Italy. About the sent C. to England and Italy to entreat assistance year 1391, the Byzantine emperor, John Palæologus, against the Turks. This mission made C. known in Italy, and, in 1397, he left his native land and went to Florence, where, as teacher of Greek literature, he was highly esteemed and admired. Leonardo Bruno, Poggius, Philelphus, Guarinus of Verona, and other eminent scholars were pupils of his. He was afterwards employed in public services-especially in mediating a union of the Greek with the Roman Church-by Pope Gregory XII. In 1413, C. went with John XXII. to the council of Constance, where he died 1415. Besides CHRY'SOBERYL, a gem almost as hard as the Greek Language' (Venice, 1484), has been pretheological works, his Erotemata, or Accidence of

CHRY'SIS, a Linnæan genus of hymenopterous insects, now constituting a family Chryside, allied to the Ichneumonidae, and forming a connecting-link between them and bees, wasps, &c. The French call them Guêpes dorées (gilded wasps), and they sometimes receive the English names of Goldentailed and Ruby-tailed Flies. They delight in sunshine, and may be seen poised in the air-the motion of their wings being so rapid as to render the body alone of the insect visible.

Right rhomboidal prism; primary form of Chrysoberyl.

A crystal composed of six twins, grouped together laterally, which in transmitted light appears red. From Siberia.

sapphire, and the finer specimens of which are very beautiful, particularly those which exhibit an

served.-Manuel C. must be distinguished from his nephew, JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, who also went to Italy and gave lessons in Greek.

CHRYSOMELA and CHRYSOMELINE. See GOLDEN BEETLE

CHRYSOPHYLLUM. See SAPOTACEE, MONESIA BARK, and STAR APPLE.

CHRY'SOPRASE is merely a variety of chalcedony, but is valued far above common chalcedony as an ornamental stone; so that a stone of this kind, fit for mounting in a ring, is worth from £10 to £20. It is of a fine apple-green colour in choice specimens, but inferior ones exhibit other shades of green, and it is sometimes spotted with yellowishbrown. It is often set in a circlet of diamonds or pearls. Unfortunately, it is apt to lose its colour through time, particularly if kept in a warm place; but dampness is favourable to its preservation, and it is therefore sometimes kept in damp cotton. It is found in Lower Silesia-where the search for it was particularly encouraged by Frederick the Great-and in Vermont. The inferior specimens are made into brooches, necklaces, &c.; and those

CHRYSOPS-CHUB.

still coarser, into snuff-boxes, seals, cups, &c.-The himself publicly imploring the pardon of Heaven C. of the ancients was a stone of yellowish-green for the crime of his parents, Arcadius and Eudoxia. colour, but it is not certain what it was.

CHRY'SOPS. See CLEG.

attempting, by forced and artificial hypotheses, to reconcile what he thought irreconcilable in Scripture statements, he frankly admitted the existence of contradictions, and shaped his theory of inspiration accordingly. But his greatest and noblest excellence lay in that power, springing from the fervour and holiness of his heart, by which the consciences of the proud, the worldly, and the profligate were awakened, and all were made to feel the reality of the gospel message. The surname C. was first applied some time after his death, and, as it is supposed, by the sixth œcumenical council in 680. C.'s works are very numerous, and consist of, 1st, Homilies, on parts of Scripture and points of doctrine; 2d, Commentaries, on the whole Bible (part of which has perished); 3d, Epistles, addressed to various people; 4th, Treatises, on different subjects (such as Providence, the Priesthood, &c.); and 5th, Liturgies. Of these the most valuable, as well as the most studied, are the Homilies which are held to be superior to everything of the kind in ancient Christian literature.

The Greek Church celebrates the festival of C. on the 13th of November; the Roman, on the 27th of January. In his Homilies (Thomas Aquinas said CHRYSOSTOM, JOHN (Gr. Chrysostomos, he would not give in exchange those on St Matthew golden-mouth; so named from the splendour of for the whole city of Paris) C. displays superior his eloquence), was born at Antioch in 347 A.D. powers of exegesis. In general, he rejects the alleHis mother Anthusa was a pious woman, wholly gorical system of interpretation, and adheres to the devoted to her son, who grew up under her loving grammatical, basing his doctrines and sentiments instructions into an earnest, gentle, and serious on a rational apprehension of the letter of Scripyouth, passing through, as Neander significantly ture. He is, however, far from being a bibliolater. observes, none of those wild, dark struggles with He recognised the presence of a human element sinful passions which left an ineffaceable impress in the Bible as well as a divine; and instead of on the soul of Augustine, and gave a sombre colouring to his whole theology. He studied oratory under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician; soon excelled his teacher; and, after devoting some time to the study of philosophy, retired to a solitary place in Syria, and there read the Holy Scriptures. The ascetic severity of his life and studies brought on an illness which forced him to return to Antioch, where he was ordained deacon by Bishop Meletius in 381, and presbyter by Bishop Flavianus in 386. The eloquence, earnestness, and practical tone of his preaching excited the attention of Jews, heathens, and heretics, and secured for him the reputation of the chief orator of the Eastern Church. In 397, the eunuch Eutropius, minister of the Emperor Arcadius, who had been struck by the bold and brilliant preaching of C., elevated him to the episcopate of Constantinople. C. immediately began to restrict the episcopal expenditure in which his predecessors had indulged, and bestowed so large a portion of his revenues on hospitals and other charities, that he gained the surname of 'John the Almoner.' He also endeavoured to reform the lives of the clergy, and sent missionaries into Scythia, Persia, Palestine, and other lands. His faithful discharge of his duties, especially in reproof of vices, excited the enmity of the patriarch Theophilus and of the Empress Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing and banishing him from the capital. He was soon recalled, to be banished again shortly afterwards. He now went to Nicæa, in Bithynia; but was from thence removed to the little town of Cucusus, in the desert parts of the Taurus Mountains. Even here his zeal was not abated. He laboured for the conversion of the

Persians and Goths in the neighbourhood, and wrote the seventeen letters (or rather moral essays) to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise on the proposition-None can hurt the man who will not hurt himself.' The emperor, enraged by the general sympathy expressed towards C. by all true Christians, gave orders that he should be more remotely banished to a desolate tract on the Euxine, at the very verge of the Eastern Roman empire. Accordingly, the old man was made to travel on foot, and with his bare head exposed to a burning

sun.

This cruelty proved fatal. C. died on the way at Comanum, in Pontus, September 14, 407 A.D., blessing God with his dying lips. The news of his death excited much sorrow among all pious Christians, for C. was a man who drew the hearts of his fellows after him; a lovable, manly Christian, hating lies, worldliness, hypocrisy, and all manner of untruthfulness, with that honest warmth of temper which all vigorous people relish. A sect sprang up after his death, or martyrdom as they conceived it, called Johannists, who refused to acknowledge his successors; nor did they return to the general communion till 438, when the Archbishop Proclus prevailed on the Emperor Theodosius II. to bring back the body of the saint to Constantinople, where it was solemnly interred, the emperor

The most correct Greek edition of C.'s works is that by Henry Savil (8 vols., Eton, 1613); and the most complete Greek and Latin edition is that by Montfaucon (13 vols., Par. 1718-1738; republished in 1834-1840). The best authority in regard to C. is Neander, who, besides treating of his life and labours in his Kirchengeschichte, published a life of this eminent Father.

CHRY'SOTYPE (Gr. chrysos, gold; typos, imJohn Herschel, and depending for its success on pression), a photographic process invented by Sir the reduction of a persalt of iron to the state of protosalt by the action of light, and the subsequent precipitation of metallic gold upon this protosalt of iron. The process is conducted as follows: Good of iron of such a strength as to dry into a good paper is immersed in a solution of ammonio-citrate yellow colour, without any tinge of brown in it. It faint impression is obtained. A neutral solution of is then exposed to light under a negative until a chloride of gold is then brushed over the paper, when the picture immediately appears, and is be freely washed in several changes of water, fixed rapidly developed to a purple tint. It should then with a weak solution of iodide of potassium, again thoroughly washed, and dried. The action of the iodide of potassium is to convert any unaltered chloride of gold into a soluble double iodide of gold and potassium, thus rendering the picture permanent.

CHUB (Leuciscus Cephalus), a fish of the family Cyprinidæ, of the same genus with the roach, dace, bleak, minnow, &c. See LEUCISCUS. The colour is bluish-black on the upper parts, passing into silvery white on the belly; the cheeks and gill. covers rich golden yellow. The C. rarely attains a weight exceeding 5 lbs. It is plentiful in many of the rivers of England, and occurs in some of those of the south-west of Scotland. In the rivers

CHUBB CHURCH.

45′ E. During a generally north-east course of 570 miles, it receives many tributaries on both sides, till, in lat. 26° 30′ N., and long. 79° 19′ E., it enters the Jumna from the right, with such a volume of water, that, when itself flooded, it has been known to raise the united stream 7 or 8 feet in twelve hours. The C. is remarkable, here and there, for the wildness of its current and its picturesqueness.

CHUNAM. See SUPP., Vol. X.

CHUNARGU RH, or CHUNAR, a fortified town on the right bank of the Ganges, 16 miles to the south-west of Benares, and in the division of that name. It is in the district of Mirzapore, and lieut.governorship of the North-west Provinces. The population of the town is somewhat over 10,000. The fortress, which occupies the summit of a sandstone rock, contains the commandant's house, the hospital, the prison, and an ancient palace, with a river in front is navigable at all seasons for vessels deeply excavated well of indifferent water. The of from 50 to 60 tons.

6

The C. rises well at a fly, and takes freely a variety of baits. The same baits and the same means of fishing may be employed as for the barbel and bream. The C. is very fond, moreover, of CHUQUISA CA, or SU'CRE, the largest city slugs, grasshoppers, cockchafers, and humble-bees. The latter two are to be used either naturally, of the state of Bolivia, in lat. 19° 20′ S., and long. by means of dibbing or dapping, or, being imitated, 65° 30′ W. It is situated on a table-land about 9000 may be used artificially, and cast as a fly. The feet above the sea, and has a pleasant climate. The best flies for the C. are large red, black, and brown town is well built, has a cathedral of great magnifipalmers, with the hackles laid on thickly. The cence, a university, a college of arts and sciences, best places to fly-fish for C. are close under overand a mining-school. C. was founded in 1538 by hanging boughs at the sides of streams, or against Pedro Auzures, an officer of Pizarro's, on the site of an old Peruvian town called Choque Chaka,' or piles, or other places where they can get some shelter, for the C. is somewhat shy and easily Bridge of Gold,' 'the treasures of the Incas having alarmed. He is a bold riser, and when he comes at passed through it on their way to Cuzco.' At one a fly seldom fails to hook himself. Of all the baits time, C. bore the name of La-Plata, on account of for bottom-fishing, he prefers greaves, cheese, and the rich silver mines in its vicinity. Population, worms; and the fatter the bait the better he likes it. 12,000. C. gives name to a territory containing He will occasionally run at a minnow, and is often 220,000 whites, besides many native Indians. It taken on a spinning bait. The C. spawns in May, has five silver mines in operation; and in it are and comes into condition again by the end of June magnificent ruins of unknown origin. The second or early in July; bites best, and is in the best name is derived from the general who, in Decemcondition for bottom-fishing, in October and November 1824, fought and won the last great battle for ber. When first hooked, he makes a great dash, colonial independence at Ayacucho. but he very soon gives in. Some years ago, the scales of the C. were in much request, in common with those of the bleak, for artificial pearl-makers. CHUBB, THOMAS, an English rationalist, who wrote on religious questions during the first half of the last century, was born at East Harnham, in Wiltshire, in 1679. He received but a meagre education in youth, and after an apprenticeship to a leather glove and breeches maker in Salisbury, he became a tallow-chandler, in which business he continued to the end of his life. His first work, published in 1715, was entitled Supremacy of God the Father Vindicated. Besides this, he wrote a multitude of treatises on other religious subjects. Among these may be mentioned: A Discourse on Reason, as a sufficient Guide in matters of Religion; On Sincerity; On Future Judgment and Eternal Punishment; Inquiry about Inspiration of the New Testament; and Doctrine of Vicarious Suffering and Intercession Refuted. C. died in 1746.

CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW (Antrostomus Carolinensis), a bird of the Goatsucker family (Caprimulgida), a native of the southern parts of the United States. It has received its singular name from its note, which resembles these words or syllables articulated with great distinctness, and is repeated like that of the cuckoo, or of its own congener, the Whip-poor-will (q. v.).

CHU-LAN. See CHLORANTHACEÆ. CHUMBU'L, a river rising in the Vindhyan Mountains, which form the southern limit of the basin of the Ganges. Its source, at a height of 2019 feet above the sea, is in lat. 22° 26' N., and long. 75°

CHURCH, a word which signifies either a place of Christian worship, or a collective body of Christian people. It is, in all probability, derived from the Greek adjective kyriakos (from kyrios, lord), the place of worship having been called the Lord's house, and the worshippers the Lord's people. The Scottish kirk, the German kirche, &c., are merely different forms of it.

Under the terms APSE and BASILICA (q. v.), we have already explained that the earliest ecclesiastical structures of the Christians were copied or adapted not from the heathen or Jewish temple, as might have been anticipated, but from that peculiar combination of a hall of justice and a market-place to which the name basilica was given by the ancients. The reason of this selection is probably to be found, not so much in the spirit of opposition which no doubt existed between Christians and heathens, as in the essentially different conceptions which they formed of the character and objects of public worship. The the priest, the people remaining without the temple; rites of heathendom were performed exclusively by and the temple itself, which was lighted only from the door, or by the few lamps which burned around the image of the god, was regarded not as a receptacle for worshippers, but as the abode of the deity. The dark mysterious character which thus belonged to it, rendered it equally unsuitable for the performance of liturgical services in which the people were to participate, and for the delivery of those public addresses which from the beginning were employed as a means of Christian teaching and exhortation. To such purposes the prætor's courtroom, with its surroundings, were readily adapted,

CHURCH.