of authentic pictures-indeed, he painted beyond his powers. He excelled in portraits, in painting animals, in fabulous and droll pieces, and was an excellent colourist; but failed in form, grace, and unity, and in the higher walks of art. His last and greatest work is an altar-piece in the church of Weimar-a mystical representation of the crucifixion. His peculiar humour is best seen in such pictures as his Samson and Delilah' and his sylvan scene containing Apollo and Diana.'

CRANBERRY (Oxycoccus), a genus of small evergreen shrubs of the natural order Vaccinea, distinguished from the genus Vaccinium (see WHORTLEBERRY) by the wheel-shaped corolla, with segments rolled back and the filaments lean ing to the pistil. The species are few, natives of

b

a

Cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris): a, part of stem and branches, with roots, leaves, and flowers; b, a berry; c, transverse section of a berry.

the colder regions of the northern hemisphere. The fruit is acid, and is in great request for making tarts. The only British species is the Common C. (O. palustris, formerly Vaccinium Oxycoccos), a native also of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. It grows in peaty bogs and marshy grounds, and is a small wiry shrub with creeping thread-like branches, and small oval leaves rolled back at the edges. The blossoms are small but beautiful, of a deep flesh colour. Large quantities of the fruit are collected in some places in the north of England, and in other countries, although the draining of bogs has now made it scarce where it was once plentiful. In Germany it is collected by means of a wooden comb, and preserved with sugar. In England, cranberries are often preserved in bottles closely corked or filled with pure water, in which they may be kept for a long time. They are an excellent addition to sea stores. Wine is made from them in Siberia, and a beverage made from them is sold in the streets of St Petersburg.-The AMERICAN C. (O. macrocarpa) is a much larger and more upright plant, with leaves much larger and less rolled back at the margin. The berries are also larger and of a brighter red. It is a native of North America, frequent in Canada, and as far south as Virginia, growing in bogs, and particularly in elevated situations and where the soil is sandy. The berries are collected by means of a rake. Large quantities of them are exported to Europe. Cranberries are imported into Britain from Russia and other parts of the continent. Both kinds may be cultivated in gardens, in a peat-soil kept very moist or round the margin of a pond, and the produce of a small space properly managed is so great, that it is surprising that a C. plot should

not be much more frequent.-The berries of the Red Whortleberry (Vaccinium vitis idaea) are sold under the name of cranberries in Aberdeen and other places, and are used in the same way.-A third species of C. (O. erecta, formerly Vaccinium erythrocarpon), a native of lofty mountains in Virginia and Carolina, is a shrub two feet high, and with a habit more like that of the whortleberries than of the other cranberries; it has a fruit remarkable for transparency and of exquisite flavour, and appears to deserve an attention and cultivation which it has not yet received.-The TASMANIAN C. is the fruit of Astroloma humifusum, a little shrub with trailing stems, leaves somewhat resembling those of juniper, and beautiful scarlet blossoms, which is found in all parts of Van Diemen's Land. It belongs to the natural order Epacridacea. The fruit is of a green or whitish colour, sometimes slightly red, about the size of a black currant, and consists of a viscid apple-flavoured pulp, enclosing a large seed.-Styphelia adscendens, a small prostrate Australian shrub of the same natural order, has a fruit very similar to this; and in New South Wales the name C. is likewise given to the red acid berries of Lissanthe sapida, a low evergreen shrub, with small white flowers, also belonging to Epacridacea.

CRA'NBROOK, a small town in the south of Kent, 30 miles south-west of Canterbury. It lies near the Crane, on an outlying ridge of the Hastings sand formation, and is the chief village of the Weald. Pop. of parish (1881), 4216. It has a large hop business. It was once the centre of the clothing manufacture, introduced by the Flemings in the time of Edward III.; but this branch of industry has long since disappeared.

CRANE, a machine employed for the purpose of lifting weights. Cranes are of various kinds, but the most common consist of an upright revolving shaft, with a projecting arm or jib, having a fixed pulley at the extremity, over which is passed one the other end being attached to a cylinder with end of the rope or chain to receive the weight, wheel and pinion, by means of which the weight is raised to the required height. By the revolving motion of the upright portion, the load can be deposited on any spot within the sweep of the jib.

CRANE (Grus), a genus of birds of the order Grallatores, the type of the family Gruida. This

with Gardiner and Fox, afterwards Bishops of Winchester and Hereford, happening to be in the neighbourhood, the event proved a turning-point in the life of Cranmer. The king was then seriously concerned about his divorce from Catharine of Aragon, and in conversation on the subject with Gardiner and Fox, Cranmer suggested that the question should be tried according to the word of God.' Fox having mentioned this suggestion to the king, Henry was greatly pleased, and 'swore by the mother of God, that man hath the right sow by the ear.' From this time, Henry never lost sight of Cranmer. He was asked to reduce his suggestion to writing, and to have it submitted to the European universities. After this he was appointed Archdeacon of Taunton, and one of the royal chaplains. He was also sent to Rome on a special embassy about the divorce, but met with little success. Subsequently, he was despatched to the Emperor on the same errand, and while in Germany, he married a second time, a niece of the German divine, Osiander. This took place in 1532; and shortly afterwards, on the death of Archbishop Warham, he was recalled to fill the vacant see. Under his auspices, Henry's divorce was speedily carried through, and C. married the king to Anne Boleyn, on the 28th May 1533. In Anne's subsequent disgrace, and again, in the affair of Anne of Cleves, the archbishop took a part not very creditable to him. His position was no doubt a difficult one; but his character was naturally pliable and timid, rather than resolved and consistcnt. The same spirit characterises the measures of religious reform which were promoted by him. On the one hand, he joined actively with Henry in restricting the power of the pope, and in suppressing the monasteries; but, on the other hand, he was no less active in persecuting men like Frith, Forrest, and others, who, on matters of religious faith, were disposed to advance further than himself or the king. He did what he could, however, to resist the reactionary movement which took place in 1539, and which is known by the institution of the 'Six Articles.' He was also instrumental in promoting the translation and circulation of the Scriptures. On Henry VIII.'s death, Cranmer was appointed one of the regents of the kingdom, and along with Latimer and others, largely contributed to the advance of the Protestant cause during the reign of Edward. He assisted in the compilation of the Service-book and the Articles of Religion. The latter are said to have been chiefly composed by him. He was also the author of four of the Homilies.

On the accession of Mary, he was committed to the Tower, along with Latimer and Ridley. In March 1554, they were removed to Oxford, and confined there in the common prison, called the Bocardo. Latimer and Ridley bore their cruel fate with magnanimous courage; but the spirit and principles of C. temporarily gave way under the severity of his sufferings. He was induced, in the hope of saving his life, to sign no fewer than six recantations; but his enemies were determined to be satisfied by nothing short of his death. On the 21st March 1556, he suffered martyrdom, as his fellowreformers had done, opposite Baliol College. His courage returned at the end, and he died protesting his repentance for his unworthy weakness in changing his faith, and shewing an unexpected fortitude in the midst of the flames.

CRANNOGES, the name given in Ireland and in Scotland to the fortified islands in lakes which were in common use as dwelling-places and places of refuge among the Celtic inhabitants. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but it is believed to refer to the timber which was employed either in

the fortification of the island, or in the construction of the houses which were placed upon it.

The earliest notice of such lake-dwellings which has been observed, is in the pages of Herodotus (book v. chap. 16). Writing of the Persian invasion of Thrace and Macedonia under Darius-about 500 years before the Christian era, and less than 100 years before his own death-he relates how the satrap Megabazus, warring against the Paonians, led certain tribes of them captive into Asia, but failed to conquer those who inhabited Lake Prasias. He sought, indeed,' says the historian, 'to subdue the dwellers upon the lake, but could not effect his purpose. Their manner of living is the following. Platforms, supported upon tall piles, stand in the middle of the lake, which are approached from the land by a single narrow bridge. At the first, the piles which bear up the platforms were fixed in their places by the whole body of the citizens; but since that time the custom which has prevailed about fixing them is this: They are brought from a hill called Orbelus, and every man drives in three for each wife that he marries. Now, the men have all many wives apiece, and this is the way in which they live. Each has his own hut, wherein he dwells, upon one of the platforms, and each has also a trapdoor giving access to the lake beneath; and their wont is to tie their baby-children by the foot with a string, to save them from rolling into the water. They feed their horses and their other beasts upon fish, which abound in the lake to such a degree, that a man has only to open his trap-door, and to let down a basket by a rope into the water, and then to wait a very short time, when he draws it up quite full of them. The fish are of two kinds, which they call the paprax and the tilon.' The Lake Prasias of the Father of History seems to be the modern Lake Takinos, on the Strymon or Kara-su, a river which, rising on the borders of Bulgaria, flows southward through Roumelia, and, after expanding its waters into a lake, falls into the Gulf of Contessa. The fish named by Herodotus have not been identified by naturalists; Lake Takinos abounds in carp, tench, and eels.

The island-dwellings of Lake Prasias met with comparatively little attention until archæologists, quite recently, found the remains of similar habitations in other parts of Europe. The first discovery was made in Ireland in 1839, by Mr W. R. Wilde, one of the secretaries of the Royal Irish Academy. The small lake of Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, in the county of Meath, having been drained, a circular mound, which had been an island in its waters, was observed to be thickly strewed with bones. As these were to be carted away for manure, it was found to be an artificial structure. Its circumference, measuring 520 feet, was formed by upright piles of oak about 7 feet long, mortised into oakplanks laid flat upon the marl and sand at the bottom of the lake. The upright piles were tied together by cross-beams, and the space which they enclosed was divided into compartments by oakbeams, some of which had grooves, so as to allow panels to be driven down between them. The compartments thus formed were filled with bones and black peaty earth. Portions of a second tier of upright piles were observed rising from the first tier. The bones were ascertained to be those of several varieties of oxen, of swine, deer, goats, sheep, dogs, foxes, horses, and asses. Along with them were found a vast number of weapons, ornaments, and utensils, fashioned of stone, bone, wood, bronze, and iron; such as swords, knives, spears, javelins, daggers, whetstones, querns (or hand-mills), beads, pins, brooches, combs, horse-trappings, shears, chains, axes, pots, and bowls. On reference to the ancient annals,

in which Ireland is so rich, it was seen that, in 848 A. D., a hostile Irish chief 'plundered the island of Loch Gabhor [as Lagore was then written], and afterwards burned it, so that it was level with the ground;' and that again, in 933 A.D., 'the island of Loch Gabhor was pulled down' by the piratical Norsemen.

Mr Wilde's discovery at Lagore was followed by other discoveries of the same kind elsewhere in Ireland, so that in 1857 the existence of about fifty C. had been ascertained; and every succeeding year has seen an increase of the number. They shew several varieties of construction. The island at Lagore is a type of the purely artificial crannoge. But most frequently the crannoge was partly natural. An islet just level with the water, was raised artificially a foot or two above it. An islet too small to be a convenient habitation, or too easy of landing to be a place of defence, had its area artificially enlarged, or its banks artificially strengthened, generally by piles or stockades, but occasionally by heaps of stones. The space thus enclosed is generally a circle of from 60 to 80 feet in diameter; but in some cases the enclosed space is larger, and of an oval shape. The piles are generally of oak, mostly young trees, from four to nine inches broad, still bearing marks of the hatchet; usually a single row has been considered enough, but there are instances of two, and even of three rows. It would seem that originally the piles had risen several feet above the water, and it has been supposed that they were interlaced with branches placed horizontally, so as

to form a screen or breastwork. The area within the stockade is sometimes wholly or partially covered with a layer of round logs, from four to six feet long, having stones, clay, or gravel above them. Fragments of oak-framing, with mortises and cheeks cut in them, have been found within the piles. In almost every instance, a few flat stones, apparently serving as a hearth, have been observed near the middle of the enclosure: in several C., two or three hearths have been met with. In some cases, a causeway leads from the island to the mainland; but in general the crannoge was to be reached only by boat, and scarcely any crannoge has been discovered without the remains of a primitive canoe, hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, being found beside it. In at least one crannoge, a pier or jetty projected from the island; it was a double row of piles and stretchers, running parallel to each other at a distance of about eight feet, and supporting a platform of logs. On almost every crannoge one or two querns (q. v.) have been found, along with bones of oxen, deer, goats, and swine, horns of cattle, deer, sheep, and goats, boars' tusks, and sharpening stones: fragments of pottery, and articles of stone, bone, horn, wood, glass, copper, bronze, brass, and iron, are of somewhat rarer occurrence. Many of the C. had been submerged by the gradual rise of the lakes in which they stood, so that their existence only became known as the great drainage-works of late years reduced the waters to their old level.

The accompanying woodcut shews a section (on the scale of 1 inch to 20 feet) of the crannoge in

Ardakillin Lough, near Stokestown, in the county of Roscommon. The uppermost line marks the highest level of the waters of the lake; the middle line, the common winter level; the third line, the common summer level. The upper surface of the crannoge was formed of a layer of loose stones, surrounded by a wall, partly supported by piles. The stones rested on the natural clay, peat, and boulders of the island, in digging through which strata of ashes, bones, and logs of timber were met with. The stockades were of oak; the oblique or slanting stockade shewn in the woodcut represents a girdle of sheet-piling which quite encircled the crannoge.

The woodcut on the following page gives a ground-plan (on the scale of 1 inch to 20 feet) of one of two C. in Drumaleague Lough, in the county of Leitrim. The circle within the ring of stockades is 60 feet in diameter; in some places there are two, and in others, three rows of stockades; and within this outer ring, there are groups of piles, some of them arranged apparently for some special purpose. The oblong space in the middle, marked A, is covered by a rude platform of round logs, chiefly of alder, from four to six feet in length; it was probably the floor of the log-house, which was the chief or only dwelling-place on the islet. B shews where the hearth stood a collection of stones, still retain ing traces of fire; C marks a heap of stiff clay; D, the root of a large tree nearly buried in the peat, the surface of the wood being bevelled off with a hatchet, so as to form a sort of table, under which was found a heap of bones, apparently of deer and swine.

The Irish annals, it has been seen, make mention of C. as early as the 9th c., and they figure in history down to the middle of the 17th century. The crannoge of Lough Lynch, in Antrim, is shewn as the birthplace of Colkitto, a chief who figured in Montrose's wars, and has found a place in one of Milton's sonnets. The crannoge of Roughan Lake, near Dungannon, was the last retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil in 1641. Two years later, there is record of an attempt to flood the crannoge of Loughinsholin, in the county of Londonderry, by turning a stream into the lake, and damming up its outlet. This attempt failed; but in 1645 the garrison were compelled by hunger to give the crannoge to the flames, and make their escape. In 1567, an agent of the English government, who was asked what were the castles of the O'Neil, wrote in reply: For castles, he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the razing of the strongest castles of all his countries; and that fortification that he only dependeth upon is in certain fresh-water lochs in his country, which from the sea there comes neither ship nor boat to approach them: it is thought that there, in the said fortified islands, lieth all his plate (which is much), and money, prisoners, and gages [i. e., hostages]; which islands have in wars heretofore been attempted, and now of late again by the lord-deputy there, Sir Harry Sydney, which for want of means for safe conduct upon the water hath not prevailed.'

While archeologists were still exploring the C. of Ireland, structures of a similar kind were